CGD presents most often with infectious illness, though some patients may present with a failure to thrive, granulomatous complications, or inflammatory disease. The disease is usually diagnosed in childhood and sometimes in early adulthood. Table
5 lists the infectious and Table
6 the inflammatory consequences of CGD. Over 90% of the patients with confirmed CGD have severe respiratory burst defects resulting in little or no expression of superoxide radicals. These patients usually present early in life (usually in infancy) as severe or life threatening bacterial or fungal infections. On the other hand, some patients might present in late childhood or early adulthood with recurrent and unusual infections, leading to the diagnosis. Typical infections include purulent bacterial infections (such as pneumonias, sinusitis or liver abscess) or necrotizing fungal infections of deep tissue or bone. As shown in Table
5, common pathogens include the gram negative
Enterobacteriaciae,
Staphylococcus,
Nocardia,
Aspergillus,
Candida and atypical
Mycobacteria[
31,
32]. Other bacterial include-
Burkholderia species and
Chromobacterium violaceum. Many apparent infections go undetected on cultures and may require special efforts to determine a specific etiological organism. At least in Sweden, patients with X-linked disease had more infections than the AR counterparts, with dermal abscesses more commonly seen than lymphadenitis or pneumonias [
33]. In the Japanese experience at one hospital, of 23 patients treated, nearly half had Aspergillus infection of the lungs, while short staure and underweight were a complication in up to 1/5
th of the patients [
34]. Failure to thrive was also observed in the UK series reported [
35], where the incidence of growth failure was much higher and listed at 75%.
Aspergillus as a major cause of morbidity and mortality was also observed in the German cohort [
36], where patients with severe involvement of cytochrome b558 were the most likely to manifest complications at an early age and also suffer from more infections compared to those with AR disease. Liese and coworkers described 11 patients with delayed presentations and diagnosis as late as 22 years of age, of which eight had X-linked disease but residual cytochrome function and three had the AR disease, while nine out of the eleven patients had some residual production of reactive oxygen metabolites, explaining their delayed presentation [
37]. In a European cohort study consisting of 429 patients [
38], 67% had X-linked disease and 33% had the AR counterpart. The patient population consisted of 351 males and 78 females [
38]. According to retrospective data collected in this series of patients, AR disease was diagnosed later and the mean survival time was significantly better in these patients (49.6 years) than in XL disease (37.8 years), compatible with other reports from the United States and elsewhere. Pulmonary (66% of patients), dermatological (53%), lymphatic (50%), alimentary (48%), and hepatobiliary (32%) complications were the most frequently observed [
38].
Staphylococcus aureus,
Aspergillus spp, and
Salmonella spp. were the most common cultured pathogens in that order, while
Pseudomonas spp. and
Burkholderia cepacia were rarely observed. Roughly 3/4
th of the patients received antibiotic prophylaxis, 1/2 antifungal prophylaxis, and 1/3
rd-received gamma-interferon. Less than 10% of the patients had received stem cell transplantation. Bacterial pneumonia and/or pulmonary abscess, systemic sepsis and brain abscess were the leading causes of death in this series. The differences between the European and United States data/observations are shown in Table
7.
Table 5
Infectious Consequences of CGD
Infectious
| | | | |
| Blood stream | Sepsis | B Cepacia Pseudomonas Serratia Staphylococcus Salmonella | Blood cultures Echocardiogram |
| Pulmonary | Pneumonia | Aspergillus Nocardia Serratia Pseudomonas Staphylococcus Klebsiella Candida Others | Radiolology Cultures Biopsy |
| Cutaneous | Impetigo Abscess | Staphylococcus Klebsiella Aspergillus/Candida Serratia | Aspirate cultures Biopsy |
| Lymph node | Adenitis Adenopathy | Candida/Nocardia Aspergillus Serratia/Klebsiella | Fine needle aspirate Cultures Biopsy |
| Liver | Abscess | Staphylococcus Streptococcus Aspergillus/Nocardia Serratia | Ultrasound or CT Aspirate Biopsy |
| Bone | Osteomyelitis | Serratia, Aspegillus Staphylococcus Pseudomonas/Nocardia | Bone scan CT/Biopsy |
| GI Tract | Perirectal abscess Fistulae | Enterobacteriaceae Staphylococcus | Biopsy Cultures |
| Urinary | Pyelonephritis | Enterobacteriaceae | Cultures IVP/CT etc |
| CNS | Meningitis Brain abscess | Candida, Haemophilus Aspergillus Staphylococcus | LP, cultures CT/MRI Biopsy |
Table 6
Inflammatory and Structural Complications of CGD
>50%/Frequent
| Lymphadenopathy |
| Hepatosplenomegaly |
| Anemia |
| Hyperglobulinemia and APR Failure to thrive, underweight |
| Failure to thrive, underweight |
≤50%
| Diarrhea |
| Gingivitis |
| Hydronephrosis |
| Gastric outlet obstruction |
| Granulomatous ileocolitis |
| Stomatitis |
| Granulomatous cystitis |
| Pulmonary fibrosis |
| Esophagitis |
| Glomerulonephritis |
| Chorioretinitis |
| Discoid lupus |
Table 7
Differences between United States and European Data
Number (n)
| 368 (259 XL/81 AR-CGD) | 429 (67% XL- and 33% AR-CGD) |
Pneumonia
| 79% | 66% |
Suppurative adenitis
| 53% | 50% |
Subcutaneous abscess
| 52% | 53% |
Liver abscess
| 27% | 32% |
Osteomyelitis
| 25% | NA |
Sepsis
| 18% | NA |
Gastric outlet obstruction
| 15% | NA |
Urinary tract obstruction
| 10% | NA |
Colitis/GI tract
| 17% | 48% |
Mortality
| 18% | NA |
Winkelstein and coworkers reported on the United States CGD experience [
30]. Of the 368 patients registered, 259 had the XL-CGD, 81 had AR-CGD, and in the remaining cases the mode of inheritance was unknown. Pneumonia, suppurative adenitis, subcutaneous abscess, liver abscess, osteomyelitis, and sepsis were the most frequently observed complications, in that order (Table
8). Other complications (Table
6) included gastric outlet obstruction, urinary tract obstruction, and granulomatous colitis or enteritis. A small fraction of the XL- and AR-CGD kindreds reported the occurrence of lupus in family members. The most common causes of death were pneumonia and/or sepsis due to
Aspergillus or
Burkholderia cepacia. As noted earlier and confirmed in the United States experience, patients with XL-CGD had a more severe phenotype than those with the AR form of the disease.
Table 8
Differences between the XL and AR forms of CGD*
Family history of lupus
| 10% | 3% |
Age at diagnosis
| 3.01 years | 7.81 years |
Perirectal abscess
| 17% | 7% |
Suppurative adenitis
| 59% | 32% |
Bacteremia and/or fungemia
| 21% | 10% |
Gastric outlet obstruction
| 19% | 5% |
Urinary obstruction
| 11% | 3% |
Mortality (over 10 year observation)
| 21.2% | 8.6% |
Sinopulmonary Complications
Pneumonia as stated earlier is often the most common complication of the disease. Infections with catalase-positive organisms are the rule. In many cases, no organism is cultured even though the patients are often treated with and respond to antimicrobials directed against bacteria or fungi. The diagnosis of pulmonary involvement is most often made clinically, complemented by radiology (chest roentgenography, computerized tomography or MRI), biopsy, and cultures. Airway obstruction that sometimes complicates infection/granulomatous disease is best diagnosed by pulmonary function tests and by bronchoscopy. Recurrent pneumonia, lung abscess, effusions and empyema thoracis, mediastinal adenopathy, and necrotizing nodular disease may be seen [
30]. The common pathogens include
Staphylococcus aureus,
Burkholderia cepacia,
Serratia marcescens,
Nocardia, and
Aspergillus spp. In the series reported by Winkelstein et al., pneumonia accounted for 79% of the infectious complications of CGD [
30]. Genetically, variant alleles of mannose binding lectin (MBL) were associated with autoimmune disease and may predispose to some pulmonary complications [
39]. Chest wall invasion by pathogens has also been described [
40] and may be due to necrotizing infections by fungi such as
Aspergillus[
41]. Pulmonary infections have also been described due to
Pneumocystis carinii[
42‐
44],
Cryptococcus neoformans[
45],
Aspergillus[
41,
46‐
50], visceral
Leishmaniasis[
51], suppurative pathogens [
52],
Pseudomonas cepacia[
53,
54], [
55],
Legionella[
56,
57],
Nocardia[
58‐
61],
Mycoplasma pneumoniae[
62],
Sarcinosporon inkin-a skin fungus [
63], Tuberculosis [
64],
Trichosporon pullulans[
65,
66],
Tularemia[
67], Q Fever [
68],
Acremonium kiliense[
69],
Botryomycosis[
70],
Chrysosporium zonatum[
71],
Burkholderia (Pseudomonas)
gladioli[
72], fulminant mulch/filamentous fungi [
73], Respiratory Syncitial Virus [
74], and
Francisella philomiragia (formerly
Yersinia philomiragia) [
75]. Certain pneumonic variants have also been described in CGD, including crystalline, nodular, and eosinophilic pneumonias [
76,
77].
Neurological Complications
Patients with CGD can develop several neurological complications. Brain abscess has been well described in patients with CGD. Various pathogens have been associated with brain abscess development including
Scedosporium prolificans[
81],
Alternaria infectoria[
82], Salmonella enterica subspecies
houtenae[
83], and
Aspergillus[
84,
85]. Other complications associated with CGD include white matter disease [
86], CNS granulomatous disease [
87] and leptomeningeal, and focal brain infiltration by pigmented, lipid-laden macrophages [
88]. Several reports of fungal brain infection [
89],
Aspergillus abscess resembling a brain tumor [
90], spinal cord infection by
Aspergillus[
91] and fungal granuloma of the brain have been described [
92]. Meningitis due to
Streptococcus[
93] and
Candida[
94] has also been reported on.
Hepatobiliary and GI Complications
A plethora of GI tract complications occur in CGD. As stated earlier, variant alleles of mannose binding lectin (MBL) were associated with autoimmune disease while polymorphisms of myeloperoxidase and Fc γ RIII were associated more with gastrointestinal complications in patients with CGD [
39]. As summarized by Barton et al., GI tract disorders can present from the mouth to the anus, and can be characterized by ulcers, abscesses, fistulae, strictures, and obstructive symptoms [
95]. Inflammatory granulomatous colitis can also lead to obstructive disease, diarrhea, malabsorption, or other manifestations [
95]. Appendicitis, perirectal abscess, salmonella enteritis, and acalculous cholecystitis have been described, some requiring surgical intervention [
96,
97].
Gastric outlet obstruction is a recognized complication [
98‐
102]. A case of gastric outlet obstruction due to diffuse gastric infiltration has also been described [
103]. There have been reports of nonsurgical resolution of gastric outlet obstruction following the use of glucocorticoids and antibiotics [
104]. Liver involvement in the form of hepatic granuloma or multiple hepatic abscesses can complicate management [
105‐
112].
Hepatic involvement by
Staphylococcus aureus and
Pseudomonas cepacia can manifest as granuloma or abscess formation [
113]. A rare case of ascites has been described in CGD [
114] and non-cirrhotic portal hypertension was reported to have prognostic significance [
115]. In one study of 194 patients from the NIH, elevated liver enzymes (mainly transaminitis) were documented in >75%, liver abscess in 35%, hepatomegaly in 34%, and splenomegaly in over 50% cases [
116]. Liver histology demonstrated granuloma in 75% and lobular hepatitis in 90%. Venopathy of the portal vein was observed in 80% and was associated with splenomegaly [
116]. Ament and Ochs commented on the occurrence of several gastrointestinal manifestations in patients with CGD [
117,
118]- including granulomata on biopsy, malabsorption syndromes, and B12-deficiency. Interferon gamma therapy, careful use of glucocorticoids and liver transplantation have improved outcomes in some patients with liver involvement [
119,
120]. Chronic infection, nausea, vomiting, and malabsorption can lead to weight loss and/or failure to thrive in patients with CGD [
70,
95,
121‐
123]. Catch up growth tends to occur and many patients attain predicted heights by late adolescence [
124].
Renal and Gentourinary Complications
Granulomatous involvement and/or infectious complications can result in major genitourinary complications in patients with CGD. Use of glucocorticoids and antimicrobials has resulted in remission of obstructive pathology in some patients, thereby avoiding surgery. Frifeit and coworkers described chronic glomerulonephritis in a 12 year old male with CGD [
125]. This culminated in terminal uremia and fatal pulmonary Aspergillosis and
Pseudomonas septicemia. Diffuse infiltration of renal and other tissues by pigment-containing macrophages may also result in pathology in CGD [
126]. Renal Aspergilloses resulting in renal abscess formation has also been described [
127] as well as xantogranulomatous pyelonephritis and renal amyloidosis [
128,
129]. In the latter case, renal amyloidosis resulting in nephritic syndrome occurred in a patient with CGD post-renal transplantation [
129]. In one series, 23/60 patients (38%) with CGD demonstrated urological disease [
130], including bladder granulomas, urethral strictures, recurrent urinary tract infections, and renal dysfunction. The judicious use of glucocorticoids and interferon gamma has had a beneficial effect on several of these conditions of either the genitourinary or gastrointestinal systems.
Other Complications
Dermatological manifestations in patients with CGD include atopic dermatitis-like disease but with systemic or deep seated infections [
131], facial granulomata [
132] and discoid lupus, and seborrheic dermatitis-like disease [
133]. Vesicular and granulomatous of fungal skin lesions have been observed in small reports [
134]. Altered skin Rebuck window responses in patients with CGD have been recorded [
135]. Several skeletal complications related mainly to infections have been described in patients with CGD. Osteomyelitis secondary to invasive
Aspergillus or
Burkholderia gladioli[
136‐
140] may occur. Osteomyelitis may involve either the long bones or even the spine [
137,
139]. Dactylitis may complicate CGD [
141]. Multifocal osteomyelitis secondary to
Paecilomyces varioti has also been reported [
142] as has sacral osteomyelitis secondary to
Basidiomycetous fungi such as
Inonotus tropicalis[
143]. Gill et al., reported on a favorable response to Interferon gamma in osteomyelitis complicating CGD [
144]. Occasionally recombinant hematopoietic growth factors (rhG-CSF), long term antimicrobials, and surgery may be required in the management of these complex patients [
140,
145].
Inflammatory Responses in CGD
Table
6 lists the inflammatory and structural changes observed in CGD. Some of these changes may truly represent infectious complications, but as stated earlier, many such tissues fail to grow any identifiable pathogens in culture. These changes may also represent the exuberant inflammatory response seen in the disease. Whether these changes represent an overwhelming response to infection by other intact components of the immune response (such as T cells and B cells) and manifested by hyperglobulinemia and elevated acute phase reactants, a failure of the compensatory "anti-inflammatory response" [
146], a diminished production of specific regulatory products such as PGE
2[
147] or activation of nuclear factor kappaB, the ubiquitous transcription fact [
148] is unclear. This in addition to the poor superoxide radical response [
149,
150], failure of phagocytosis and the enhanced cytokine responses [
151] may be responsible for the observed inflammatory pathologies listed in Table
6. At least in a murine model, the failure of an immune-modulatory effect of superoxide radicals was associated with exuberant inflammatory responses and TH
17-mediated pathology and arthritis [
152]. The development of animal models of CGD to study this "hyperinflammation" further will improve our understanding of the immune dysregulation seen in the disease [
153,
154]. Granuloma formation is often accompanied by inflammatory, obstructive, or functional impairments of organ systems, such as the GI tract or the GU system [
155].
Other Aspects of CGD
In some patients with CGD, the deletion in the Xp21 can extend to other "contiguous" genes resulting in an association of the disease with lack of Kell blood antigens (Mcleod phenotype), Retinitis Pigmentosa, and Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy [
156‐
159]. This could complicate blood transfusion. There have been reports of successful granulocyte transfusions in patients with the Mcleod Phenotype, complicated only by mild hemolysis [
160].
Female carriers have manifested some symptoms, such as dermatitis, stomatitis, and discoid lupus-like disease [
161‐
165]. CGD-like infections can sometimes present in female carriers, and these patients demonstrate both normal and CGD-neutrophils with functional mosaicism[
166]. In one report of 15 carriers of the CGD gene, five patients had both stomatitis and discoid SLE-like lesions and five patients had stomatitis alone, while the remaining five patients were relatively asymptomatic [
167]. Martin-Villa and co-workers also described more frequent autoantibodies among carriers of the CGD gene compared to non-carrier relatives, probably related to random X-chromosome inactivation [
168].
Concomitant immune deficiencies may complicate CGD and contribute to infectious complications. In patients with documented CGD, variant alleles of mannose binding lectin (MBL) were associated with autoimmune disease and may predispose to some pulmonary complications [
39]. There have been several reports of IgA deficiency in patients with CGD [
55,
169,
170]. Further studies of humoral immune response and MBL deficiency in patients with CGD are essential to further understand these immune interactions and predisposition to autoimmunity and infectious disease.