Introduction
Patients with α-synuclein (α-syn) A53T, A30P, E46K mutations or gene amplification develop typical Parkinson's disease (PD) and often an associated dementia[
1]. However, in > 90% of PD cases, and almost all dementia with Lewy body (DLB) and Lewy body variant of Alzheimer's disease (LBVAD) cases, α-syn aggregation occurs yet without a clear evidence of mutation or up-regulation of α-syn mRNA transcription. Therefore, impaired α-syn clearance may play a more important role than α-syn overexpression in neuronal α-syn accumulation and neurodegenerative disease pathogenesis.
Experiments in vitro have shown that α-syn can be cleared by the cytosolic ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), and/or lysosome-mediated autophagic pathways[
2]. The UPS degrades short-lived, misfolded and/or damaged proteins via an ubiquitin-dependent signaling pathway. Macroautophagy is initiated by de novo synthesis of double membrane vesicles in the cytoplasm. These vesicles encircle long-lived or damaged proteins or organelles by an unknown signaling mechanism and deliver these cargos to lysosomes for degradation. Chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) is initiated by chaperones binding to KFERQ-consensus sequence-containing cytosolic proteins followed by delivery to the lysosomes via lysosomal membrane LAMP-2a receptors. Wildtype α-syn has a pentapeptide sequence that can serve as a CMA recognition motif and can be translocated to the lysosome, while dopamine modified or pathogenic A53T and A30P mutant α-syn block CMA [
3,
4].
Lysosomal function declines with age in the human brain[
5]. Accumulation of autophagic vacuoles (AVs) has been reproducibly observed in postmortem AD and PD patient brains compared to normal controls, consistent with either an overproduction of AVs or a deficit in autophagolysosomal clearance[
6]. Enhancing macroautophagy by either mTOR-dependent or independent mechanisms can help clear aggregation-prone proteins, including huntingtin, A53T and A30P mutant α-syn [
7,
8]. However, because both macroautophagy and CMA are dependent on intact lysosomes, enhancing macroautophagy may not be effective in clearing potentially neurotoxic proteins if lysosomal function is impaired. Understanding the role of lysosomal enzymes in α-syn clearance may provide new strategies for LBVAD, DLB, and PD therapy.
Cathepsin D (CD) is the principal lysosomal aspartate protease and a main endopeptidase responsible for the degradation of long-lived proteins [
9,
10], including α-syn[
11]. CD is expressed widely in the brain, including the cortex, hippocampus, striatum, and dopaminergic (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra (SNr)[
12]. CD is synthesized as a precursor with a signal peptide cleaved upon its insertion into endoplasmic reticulum[
13]. The CD zymogen is activated in an acidic environment by cleavage of the pro-peptide. CD is also up-regulated in AD brains as an early event, but whether CD up-regulation is coincidental, disease promoting, or compensatory is unclear[
14].
CD gene
(Ctsd) homozygous inactivation was reported to cause human congenital neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) with postnatal respiratory insufficiency, status epilepticus, and death within hours to weeks after birth[
15]. These patients had severe neurological defects at birth and neuronal α-syn accumulation was not examined. Another patient with significant loss of CD enzymatic function (7.7% Vmax from patient fibroblast lysates compared to controls) due to compound heterozygous missense mutations developed childhood motor and visual disturbances, cerebral and cerebellar atrophy, and progressive psychomotor disability[
16]. Conceivably, milder forms of CD deficiency could predispose to late onset neurodegenerative disorders, including AD and PD. Parkinsonism has been noted in lysosomal tripeptidyl peptidase I deficient patients[
17], adult forms of NCL patients[
18], and Gaucher disease patients[
19]. α-syn aggregation has been reported in both neurons and glia in several lysosomal disorders, such as Gaucher disease[
20], Niemann-Pick disease[
21], GM2 gangliosidosis, Tay-Sachs, Sandhoff disease, metachromatic leukodystrophy, and beta-galactosialidosis[
22].
Significant α-syn accumulation has not been previously reported in mouse models of proteolytic disorders involving proteasomes, autophagy or other lysosomal proteases [
23‐
26]. Here we report a robust α-synucleinopathy in CD deficient mice, despite the compensatory up-regulation of other lysosomal proteases, and the absence of an increase of α-syn mRNA expression. We found that proteasome activities are significantly reduced in the CD-deficient brain, whereas several key UPS factors are either normal or up-regulated, indicating crosstalk between lysosomal and proteasomal activities at the levels of signaling rather than a reduction of protein levels. Finally, we demonstrate that CD, but not Cathepsin B (CB) or Cathepsin L (CL), overexpression reduces α-syn aggregation and provides potent neuroprotection from α-syn-induced neuron death in vitro and in vivo.
Discussion
Our results demonstrate that CD deficiency leads to significant accumulation of α-syn that is concentrated in neuronal cell bodies, despite the up-regulation of multiple lysosomal cathepsin genes. α-synucleinopathy arises from CD dysfunction, either directly due to deficient proteolytic cleavage, and/or indirectly as a consequence of compromised proteasome activity. Most significantly, we further demonstrated that CD overexpression protects neurons from α-syn aggregation and α-syn-induced death both in mammalian cells and in C. elegans. These findings suggest that targeted CD therapy may inhibit or reverse LB disease-associated neuropathology.
The α-syn accumulations in
Ctsd-/- brains are neuronal and perinuclear. Although
Ctsd-/- brain extracts exhibited increased immunoreactive protein species recognized by the anti-phospho-α-syn antibody that specifically recognizes human LB[
36], α-syn accumulations in
Ctsd-/- brains could not be detected by this antibody that specifically recognizes human LB despite that they were successfully used in our hands to demonstrate LB-specific staining of human PD specimen (data not shown). Only 5% of neurons exhibited intense immunoreactivity for both α-syn and ubiquitin suggesting their accumulation, an observation in accordance with that only a small fraction of α-syn is ubiquitinated in human LB [
33‐
36]. α-syn accumulations are adjacent to but not overlapping with autophagosomal or lysosomal markers, suggesting an attenuation of these complexes and organelles in encircling accumulated α-syn in the
Ctsd-/- brains. Where α-syn unfolds and forms oligomers, and whether CD reduces a specific sub-population of α-syn protofibrils or other small assemblies of α-syn require further investigation.
α-syn gene triplication is causative in a subset of PD, which suggests that increasing α-syn gene dosage promotes DA neuron death in these patients[
1]. Overproduction of α-syn via AAV delivery induces DA neuron death in rodents[
45]. CD deficiency induced by aging, genetic polymorphism, or environmental toxins may predispose animals to an earlier onset of spontaneous neuron death, or exacerbate neurotoxin or α-syn overproduction-induced DA neuron loss, in comparison to wildtype control mice. Furthermore, although
Ctsd-/- mice die approximately p26 without apparent tau or beta amyloid accumulation in the brain (data not shown), we cannot exclude the possibility that partial loss of CD may also affect tau or beta amyloid clearance.
We found significant down-regulation of proteasome activities in
Ctsd-/- brains. The reduction of proteasome activity may be due to reduced expression of UPS regulators and proteasome subunits, inactivating post-translational modification of these proteins, or specific inhibitory signaling by the accumulated ubiquitinated proteins. Crosstalk between protein degradation pathways is potentially important in neurodegenerative disease pathogenesis since inhibition of proteasomes up-regulates lysosomal enzymes[
48], and enhancing proteasome function alleviates autophagy defects[
49]. Furthermore, α-syn overexpression in mammalian cells affects proteasome activity, macroautophagy as well as lysosomal functions[
50]. Lysosomal storage disorders and lysosomal cysteine protease inhibitor E64 treatment were previously shown to down-regulate UCHL1[
51], however, such is not the case in
Ctsd-/- brains in our study, indicating a distinct mechanism of CD deficiency-induced proteasome dysfunction. GAPDH accumulation may be a consequence of impaired CMA[
3], because
Ctsd-/- cells are compromised in lysosomal function[
3]. Alternatively, GAPDH elevation may represent an ultimately futile compensatory signal that elevates macroautophagy initiation as previously suggested in HeLa cells[
52]. Additionally, GAPDH elevation may promote the formation of protein inclusions [
53,
54].
The overproduction of α-syn has been shown to cause cell death in many studies through a variety of mechanisms, including a compromise in synaptic vesicle function, the induction of ER stress, Golgi fragmentation, mitochondrial dysfunctions and proteasome dysfunction [
44,
55‐
58]. However, cell death in these studies required massive overproduction of α-syn. Even in these conditions, the challenge has been to determine whether the intermediate species of α-syn are the most toxic to neurons. It remains possible that the α-syn aggregates in sporadic PD are not causative to DA neuron death, but rather a compensatory activity to attenuate DA neuron death, or a mere bystander effect in DA neuron death. The comparison of different mutant forms of α-syn in their propensity in forming fibrils and their toxicity was carried out in yeast and the rate of fibrillization did not positively correlate with toxicity[
59]. α-syn can interact with many other proteins[
60], but whether these interactions elicit cytoprotective versus death-inducing effects remains to be elucidated. Other observations suggest that LB formation may be a mechanism to sequester toxic α-syn species and thus exert a protective function [
61‐
63]. Our observation that α-syn accumulates in
Ctsd-/- brains does not distinguish its role in promoting or attenuating death in
Ctsd-/- brains in vivo. We did not observe neurons with concurrent activation of caspase-3 and α-syn accumulation (Fig.
2). This may indicate that α-syn accumulation and capase-3 activation are with different time course. Alternatively, our observation may suggest that? certain forms of α-syn accumulation induce non-apoptotic cell death, or even compensatory neuroprotection.
α-syn knockout mice are resistant to MPTP-induced DA neuron death [
64‐
66]. Reduction of α-syn is neuroprotective in multiple animal models [
67,
68]. Regardless of the precise mechanism for CD deficiency induced α-synucleinopathy, our finding that enhanced expression of CD is neuroprotective against α-syn aggregation and toxicity, both in worms and in mammals, provides a basis for future investigation of whether delivery of CD to the central nervous system in animal models of LB diseases can help alleviate protein aggregation and toxicity, and thereby serve as a previously unexplored target for disease therapy.
Methods
Mice
We genotyped littermates from Ctsd+/- breeding. We used Ctsd+/+, Ctsd+/- and Ctsd-/- littermates on C57BL6 background for all experiments.
Immunohistochemistry
Brains were placed in Bouin's fixative overnight at 4°C followed by paraffin embedding. 5 μm thick sections were used for immunohistochemical studies. The following antibodies were used: mouse anti-NeuN (Chemicon), mouse anti-α-syn (BD Transduction Lab), sheep anti-α-syn (Chemicon), goat anti-CD (Santa Cruz), mouse anti-GFAP (Chemicon), rabbit anti-Ub (Dako), mouse anti-Ub (FK2, Biomol), mouse anti-Ub (Chemicon, clone Ubi-1), mouse anti-Ub (Zymed), mouse anti-synaptophysin (Chemicon), goat anti-cathepsin B (Santa Cruz), rabbit anti-active caspase 3 (Chemicon), and rabbit-anti-GAPDH (Cell Signaling). Horseradish peroxidase conjugated donkey derived secondary antibodies were used at 1:2000 (Jackson ImmunoResearch). The sections were then incubated with tyramide signal amplification (TSA) plus detection solution with Cy3 or fluorescein tyramide according to the manufacturer's instruction (PerkinElmer Life Sciences), followed by bisbenzimide staining of DNA. For chromogenic immunohistochemistry, we incubated the sections with a biotinylated secondary antibody (Vector Laboratories) followed by ABC reagent (ABC kit, Vector Laboratories). We visualized the immunoreaction by treating the sections in 0.05% diaminobenzidine (DAB) with hydrogen peroxide. The images were taken using a Leica TCS SP5 confocal microscope or a Zeiss Axiocam CCD camera on a 100 W Axioscope bright field and fluorescence microscope.
α-syn aggregation assay
We used the in vitro system developed by McLean and colleagues in which an α-syn-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein (α-syn-GFP) becomes truncated at the C-terminus, cleaving off GFP, to form visible aggregates in cells when co-expressed with synphilin[
41]. We transfected H4 neuroglioma cells with α-syn-GFP and synphilin, and either the empty vector pcDNA3.1 or CD. 24 h after transfection, cells were fixed and stained with a mouse monoclonal antibody against α-syn (1:1000; BD transduction), and a secondary Alexa 488-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibody (1:500; Jackson ImmunoResearch). An observer blind to the transfection conditions scored neurons as positive or negative for α-syn aggregates visible with a 20X objective under a fluorescent microscope. Three independent experiments were carried out with 4 replicates per experiment. Student t-test was used to compare transfection with empty vector versus transfection with CD.
Cell culture and transfection
The human neuroblastoma SHSY5Y cells were transfected in triplicate by vector alone, a-syn-GFP, pCMV-CD, or co-transfected by a-syn-GFP (or A53T, A30P, Y125A mutant a-syn) and pCMV-CD (or mutant CD) by Amaxa method as described by the vendor. Transfection efficiency was 80% as assessed by cells with or without GFP. 72 h after transfection, cells were harvested. For chloroquine (10 mM) treatment, the chemicals were added 48 h after transfection, cells were harvested 42 h later. Live cells were counted by trypan blue exclusion. Relative cell survival was calculated as number of live cells after transfection by pCMV-CD and/or a-syn-GFP divided by live cells after transfection by vector alone. Elevated expression of a-syn-GFP or cathepsins was confirmed by western blot analyses using whole cell extracts.
Western blot
We homogenized wildtype and
Ctsd-/- cortex (n ≥ 3 each genotype) in 10 volumes of ice-cold lyses buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4, 175 mM NaCl, 5 mM EDTA), sonicated for 10 sec, add TritonX-100 to 1% and incubated for 30 min on ice. We then centrifuged homogenates at 15,000
g for 15 min at 4°C to separate supernatants (fractions soluble in 1% TritonX-100) and pellets (TritonX-100-insoluble fractions)[
43]. Pellets were resuspended in lyses buffer containing 2% SDS. Western blotting for each sample was done at least twice. The antibodies used were described in Immunohistochemistry.
Quantitative PCR
Total brain RNA was isolated from p25 mice using RNA-STAT60 (Tel-Test, Friendswood, TX). Total RNA (2 μg) was then reverse transcribed using Applied Biosystems GeneAmp Gold RNA PCR Reagent Kit (Foster City, CA). Real-time PCR reactions were setup in duplicate using TaqMan gene assays and amplified in an Applied Biosystems Step-One instrument. ΔΔCCT curves were generated using 18S TaqMan gene assays as internal standards. Quantitative PCR results are shown as standard deviation of from 3 different amplifications from RNA reverse transcribed from 3 different animals. Individual gene assay kits were purchased from Applied Biosystems for each of the RNAs analyzed. Paired t-tests were conducted on RQ (relative quantity) values for each group to determine significance.
Proteasome activity assays
We analyzed the proteasome activities using the TritonX-100-soluble fractions. The assay buffer consists of 50 mM Tris (pH7.5), 2.5 mM EGTA, 20% glycerol, 1 mM DTT, 0.05% NP-40, 50 μM substrate. Lactacystin was used at a final concentration of 10 μM to block proteasome activities as negative controls. Fluorescence was read at 5 min intervals for 2 h, at an excitation wavelength of 380 nm and an emission wavelength of 460 nM. Assays were done in triplicate, each using n ≥ 3 mice per genotype.
C. elegans experiments
Nematodes were maintained following standard procedures[
69]. Worms expressing α-syn alone UA49 [
baInl2;
Punc-54::
α-syn::
gfp,
rol-6 (su1006)] or with
tor-2 [UA50;
baInl3;
P
unc-54
::
α-syn::
gfp,
P
unc-54
::
tor-2, rol-6 (su1006)] were created, integrated into the genome to generate an isogenic line, and out-crossed four times. We used the worm line that overexpresses TOR-2 protein (a worm homolog of human torsinA) and a-syn fused to GFP in the body wall muscle cells because these cells are much larger than neurons for detecting a-syn aggregation. Moreover, C. elegans dopaminergic neurons have been shown to be refractory to RNAi. Using this isogenic line, we knocked down the worm Ctsd ortholog by RNAi, and scored for the return of a-syn aggregates over the course of development and aging.
RNAi was performed by bacterial feeding as described[
70] with the following modification. A
Ctsd-specific RNAi feeding clone targeting a distinct portion of the
C. elegans open reading frame [R12H7.2 (
asp-4); e-value = 1.8e-108] with highest homology to human
Ctsd (Geneservice) was grown for 14 h in LB broth with 100 μg/ml ampicillin and seeded onto NGM agar plates containing 1 mM isopropyl β-D-thiogalactoside. After 4 h incubation at 25°C to dry the plates, five gravid adults were then placed onto the corresponding RNAi plates and allowed to lay eggs for 9 h; the resulting age-synchronized worms were analyzed at the indicated stage. RNAi knockdown was performed in duplicate sets of animals and enhancement α-syn misfolding was scored as positive if at least 80% of worms displayed an increased quantity and size of α-syn::GFP aggregates. For each trial, 20 worms were transferred onto a 2% agarose pad, immobilized with 2 mM levamisole, and analyzed using Nikon Eclipse E800 epifluorescence microscope equipped with Endow GFP HYQ filter cube (Chroma Technology). Images were captured with a Cool Snap CCD camera (Photometrics) driven by MetaMorph software (Universal Imaging).
Quantitative PCR from C. elegans
The procedure for total RNA isolation, cDNA preparation, and semi-quantitative RT-PCR was described previously[
71]. The following primers were used for the PCR:
cdk-5 Primer 1: 5' ggg-gat-gat-gag-ggt-gtt-cca-agc 3'; Primer 2: 5' ggc-gac-cgg-cat-ttg-aga-tct-ctg-c 3'.
tor-2 Primer 1: 5' caa-tta-tca-tgc-gtt-ata-caa-ag 3'; Primer 2: 5' cat-tcc-act-tcg-ata-agt-att-g 3'.
cdk-5 Primer 1: 5' ggg-gat-gat-gag-ggt-gtt-cca-agc 3'; Primer 2: 5' ggc-gac-cgg-cat-ttg-aga-tct-ctg-c 3'.
tor-2 Primer 1: 5' caa-tta-tca-tgc-gtt-ata-caa-ag 3'; Primer 2: 5' cat-tcc-act-tcg-ata-agt-att-g 3'.
For the DA neurodegeneration analysis, strain UA54 [baEx45; P
dat-1
::α-syn, P
dat-1
::gfp, P
dat-1
::CD,rol-6 (su1006)], UA90 [baEx69; P
dat-1
::α-syn, P
dat-1
::gfp, P
dat-1
::CD D295R,rol-6 (su1006)], UA91 [baEx70; P
dat-1
::α-syn, P
dat-1
::gfp, P
dat-1
::CD F229I,rol-6 (su1006)], UA53 [baEx44; P
dat-1
::α-syn, P
dat-1
::gfp, P
dat-1
::CB,rol-6 (su1006)], and UA55 [baEx46; P
dat-1
::α-syn, P
dat-1
::gfp, P
dat-1
::CL,rol-6 (su1006)] were generated by injecting 50 μg/ml of expression plasmid containing the human cathepsin cDNA and 50 μg/ml of rol-6 into an integrated line of UA44 [baInl1; P
dat-1
::α-syn, P
dat-1
::gfp[72]]. Three stable lines were randomly selected for neurodegeneration analysis. The 6 anterior DA neurons (4 CEP and 2 ADE neurons) of 30 animals/trial were examined for neurodegeneration when the animals were 7 days old. 90 animals from each of three CD (or CD D295R, CD F229I, CB, and CL) transgenic lines were analyzed (3 lines × 3 trials of 30 animals/trial = 270 total animals scored). Worms displaying at least one degenerative change (dendrite, axon, or cell body loss) were scored as exhibiting degenerating neurons as previously reported [44;72].
Acknowledgements
We thank Songsong Cao for generating the α-syn::GFP transgenic worms, Dr. Pam McLean for plasmids used for α-syn aggregation assay in H4 cells, Drs. M Brenner and Y-F Chen for critically reading the manuscript, Drs. J Wu and J Tucholski, and members of our laboratories for technical assistance and discussions. Ctsd mutant mice were generously provided by Dr. P Saftig (University of Kiel). We thank Genta Ito for handling the shipping of the phospho-α-syn antibody. This work is funded by the American Parkinson's Disease Association and Michael J. Fox Foundation (GAC, KAC, DGS), Batten Disease Support and Research Association, VA career development award, and UAB Alzheimer Disease Research Center (JJS), NIH grants NS35107 and NS41962 (KAR), a UAB faculty development and start-up fund, UAB Alzheimer Disease Research Center, the American Parkinson's Disease Association, and Michael J. Fox Foundation (JZ). This work is also supported by UAB Neuroscience Core Facilities (NS47466 and NS57098). This work was also supported by the American Heart Association (05553413, YL), NIH/NINDS (R01NS5051383, YL) and NIH/NIA (R01AG033282, YL).
Competing interests
KAC and GAC are scientific advisors to QRxPharma, Ltd. from whom they receive monetary compensation and a sponsored research agreement. The other authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists.
Authors' contributions
LQ performed the majority of the experiments of immunohistochemistry, western blot analyses, proteasome activity assays, and cell culture studies. SH, KAC and GAC contributed to all the findings in the worm. TAY contributed the α-syn aggregation assay in H4 cells. SW contributed the real-time PCR. ZLX, RP, LDS, DC, QL, SC and LS assisted with various experiments. YU provided the LC3 antibody. TI provided the anti-phospho-α-syn antibody. YZ constructed mammalian expression plasmids for GFP-α-syn. LP and YML constructed the mammalian expression plasmid for CD. KCW, JJS and KAR contributed the original CD mutant mice, brain sections and extracts for our initial findings, helped with setting up western and immunohistochemistry techniques, and provided discussions on autophagy and CD. KAR was essential for identification of the α-syn aggregates after immunostaining and provided neuropathology expertise, discussions, and assistance in writing the manuscript. DGS provided discussions and expertise in PD, α-syn metabolism, and confocal microscopy. JZ directed the project and wrote the manuscript.