Background
Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the USA [
1]. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) accounts for 95% of all pancreatic cancer cases [
2]. Despite advances in the understanding of pancreatic cancer biology, effective chemotherapeutic modalities for the treatment of patients remain to be developed. In addition to the aggressive pathogenesis, around 83% of pancreatic cancer patients demonstrate cancer-induced cachexia, which significantly contributes to cancer-related deaths [
3]. Thus, inhibition of cachexia along with cancer cell growth may be an effective strategy for the management of pancreatic cancer.
Cachexia, a metabolic syndrome, leads to a loss of muscle weight and the depletion of fat deposits. Although an association of cachexia with various types of cancers has been known for a long time, the molecular mechanism of cancer-induced cachexia is poorly understood [
4]. Cachexia is triggered by a large number of tumor and host-derived catabolic factors and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, TNFα, and IFN-γ, which lead to changes in host metabolism and energy expenditure [
4]. It has been proposed that excessive consumption of glucose by a growing tumor first leads to a depletion of glucose in the blood. At later stages of tumor growth, a depletion of glycogen stores in the liver occurs. Glycogen depletion is followed by muscle degradation and depletion of adipose deposits. All these account for the cachexia syndrome and result in a poor response to chemotherapy, fatigue, and a reduced quality of life for cancer patients [
5].
Cancer cells exhibit reprogramming of several metabolic pathways along with multiple genetic, epigenetic, and growth signaling alterations [
6,
7]. Most cancer cells demonstrate an increase in glucose uptake, a higher rate of glycolysis, and an increase in lactate secretion despite the presence of oxygen, a phenomenon known as the Warburg effect [
8]. Aerobic glycolysis plays an important role in rapid cellular growth as it provides several intermediates required for biomass synthesis by routing the carbon flux through the pentose phosphate pathway [
9]. The increased conversion of pyruvate into lactate by aerobic glycolysis leads to acidosis in tumor microenvironments that facilitates invasion and metastasis of cancer cells [
10]. Aerobic glycolysis is also an energy-inefficient process requiring large amounts of glucose. Correspondingly, tumor cells serve as a glucose sink [
11]. Additionally, lactate produced from tumor cells passes to the liver and gets converted to glucose by means of the Cori cycle, another energy-inefficient process [
9]. Along with glucose uptake and enhanced aerobic glycolysis, cancer patients also present glucose intolerance and increased hepatic glucose production [
12]. An increased requirement for glucose might be the critical stimulus needed for enhanced hepatic glucose production. Tumor cells also have alterations in the metabolism of glutamine, a nitrogen source and arguably the most significant metabolite precursor for tumor cells after glucose [
13].
A ketogenic diet is a high-fat and low-carbohydrate diet that leads to elevated circulating levels of ketone bodies (
i.e., acetoacetate, β-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone) and an alternative energy source [
14]. Ketogenic diets possess anticonvulsant and antiinflammatory activities [
15,
16]. It has also been proposed that a ketogenic diet treatment results in systemic metabolic changes like increased glucose tolerance, reduced fatty acid synthesis, and weight loss [
17]. Keeping in view the significant role of inflammation and metabolic alterations in cancer, a ketogenic diet may provide an efficient therapeutic strategy. Furthermore, most cancer cells lack key mitochondrial enzymes to metabolize ketone bodies and generate ATP, while myocytes and other tissues, including the brain, still retain this ability [
18]. Hence, a ketogenic diet may act against the cancer-induced cachexia while causing minimal side effects as previously it has been shown that a 2–7-mM ketone body concentration can be achieved safely without giving rise to clinical acidosis [
19,
20]. In the present study, we have evaluated anticancerous and anticachectic properties of ketone bodies in cell culture conditions, as well as the effect of a ketogenic diet on tumor burden and cachexia in animal models
. Furthermore, our studies establish a ketone body-induced metabolomic reprogramming as the mechanism of action of a ketogenic diet against cancer and cancer-induced cachexia.
Methods
Cells and reagents
The human pancreatic cancer cell line Capan1, mouse myoblast C2C12, and mouse embryo fibroblast (preadipocyte) 3T3L1 were obtained from American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA, USA). S2-013 is a cloned subline of a human pancreatic tumor cell line (SUIT-2) derived from a liver metastasis [
21]. All the cell lines were cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, penicillin (100 mg/mL), and streptomycin (100 mg/mL) and incubated at 37°C in a humidified chamber with 5% CO
2. Sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate, lithium acetoacetate, dihydroethidium (DHE), 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), BCPCF, and
S-hydroxy butyric acid were purchased from Sigma Chemicals (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA).
Cell viability and caspase 3/7 activity assay
Cell viability was determined by performing MTT assay. Capan1 and S2-013 cells (5 × 103 cells per well) were seeded in 96-well plates for 12 h and then treated with different concentrations of sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate or lithium acetoacetate for 72 h. After treatment, cells were incubated with MTT reagent for 2 h; the resultant formazan crystals were dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide and the absorbance was recorded at 590 nm. Untreated cells were utilized as a control for the viability assays. Caspase 3/7 activity was determined by utilizing a Promega Caspase-Glo kit (Madison, WI, USA). Capan1 and S2-013 cells (0.6 × 106 cells per well) were seeded in 6-well plates for 12 h and then treated with different concentrations of sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate and lithium acetoacetate for 48 h. Caspase 3/7 activity was then determined as per the manufacturer’s protocol.
Glucose and glutamine uptake assay
To determine glucose uptake, Capan1 and S2-013 cells (5 × 104 cells per well) were seeded in 24-well plates. After 12 h, cells were treated with multiple concentrations of sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate and lithium acetoacetate for 24 h. After treatment, cells were starved for glucose for 2 h and then incubated for 20 min with 1 μCi [3H]-2-deoxyglucose (DG) for a glucose uptake assay. Cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and lysed with 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). The lysates were then subjected to [3H] counting by utilizing a scintillation counter. Scintillation counts from cells treated with labeled and excess unlabeled 2-DG were utilized as controls for baseline correction. The results were normalized to the cell counts. For determining glutamine uptake, Capan1 and S2-013 cells (5 × 104 cells per well) were seeded in 24-well plates. After 12 h, cells were treated with solvent control, multiple concentrations of sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate, or lithium acetoacetate for 24 h. Post treatment, cells were starved for glutamine for 2 h and then incubated for 3 min with 1 μCi tritiated Glutamine, l-[3,4-3H(N)]. Cells were washed with PBS and lysed in 1% SDS. The lysates were used for [3H] counting by utilizing a scintillation counter. Scintillation counts from cells treated with labeled and excess unlabeled glutamine were utilized as controls for baseline correction. The results were normalized to the cell counts.
Lactate release assay
Capan1 and S2-013 cells (5 × 104 cells per well) were seeded in 24-well plates. After 12 h, cells were treated with indicated concentrations of sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate or lithium acetoacetate for 24 h. The culture supernatants were then utilized for determining lactate release. The assay was performed by utilizing a Lactate Assay Kit (Eton Bioscience Inc., San Diego, CA, USA), as per the manufacturer’s protocol.
ATP assay
Total ATP level in cells was determined by using an ATP assay kit (Roche, Indianapolis, IN, USA). After 12 h, cells were treated with different concentrations of sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate and lithium acetoacetate for 24 h and ATP level was determined as per the manufacturer’s protocol. ATP level was normalized with total protein concentration.
Reactive oxygen species assay
Reactive oxygen species level was determined by using oxidation-sensitive fluorescent dye DHE. Capan1 and S2-013 cells (0.1 × 106 cells per well) were seeded in 12-well plates on glass coverslips. After 12 h, cells were treated with solvent control or indicated doses of sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate and lithium acetoacetate for 24 h. Control and treated cells were incubated at 37°C in 2.5 mM DHE containing DMEM. After incubation, cells were washed with cold PBS and fixed with HistoChoice® fixative (Sigma-Aldrich) for 15 min at room temperature. Cells were washed with PBS and the coverslips were mounted onto glass slides using real-mount. Fluorescence intensity per cell was determined by scanning with Zeiss Axiovert 200 M microscope (Oberkochen, Germany) and analyzing the images with SlideBook 5.5 software (Intelligent Imaging Innovations, Inc., Denver, CO, USA).
Gene expression analysis by qRT-PCR
Total RNA was isolated by utilizing RNeasy columns (Qiagen, Venlo, The Netherlands) as per the manufacturer’s protocol. Total RNA (5 μg) was reverse transcribed by utilizing Verso-cDNA synthesis kit (Thermo Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA) according to the manufacturer’s guidelines. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was performed with gene-specific primers at 95°C for 10 s and 60°C for 60 s (40 cycles) in 10 μL reaction mix containing 3 μL cDNA, 2 μL primers, and 5 μL SYBR Green Master Mix (Applied Biosystems, Grand Island, NY, USA) using an ABI 7500 thermocycler. Beta-actin was utilized as an internal control. The sequence of different sets of primers used in the study is given in Additional file
1. Quantification was performed with the ΔΔCt method [
22].
Immunoblotting
For immunoblotting, cells were washed twice with cold PBS and lysed in RIPA lysis buffer by incubating at 4°C rotatory shaker for 30 min. Cell debris was removed by centrifugation at 13,000 rpm for 10 min and the supernatant was collected. Protein content was measured by performing Bradford assay. Western blotting was performed as described previously [
23]. The membranes were probed with primary antibody against GLUT1 (Abcam, Cambridge, UK), c-Myc-9E10 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Dallas, TX, USA), HKII (Cell Signaling Technology, Beverly, MA, USA), and HSP90 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology).
Luciferase assay
c-Myc-promoter (del1)-luciferase reporter construct was obtained from Addgene (Cambridge, MA, USA) [
24]. Cells were transfected with 1 μg of plasmid, and 16 h post transfection, cells were treated with different ketone bodies for 24 h. A synthetic
Renilla luciferase reporter pRL-TK was utilized as a transfection control. Luciferase activity was determined by utilizing Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay System (Promega).
Chromatin immunoprecipitation
For chromatin immunoprecipitation, cells were treated with 20 mM sodium-3-hydroxybutyrate and lithium acetoacetate for 24 h along with solvent control. Chromatin immunoprecipitation was performed by utilizing c-Myc antibody (9E10) as described previously [
25]. Mouse IgG was utilized as a control. qPCR data were normalized to a genomic region located within
GUSB gene and represented as fold enrichment relative to the IgG control. Primer sequences used for qPCR amplification are described in Additional file
1.
Tumor growth measurement
Congenitally athymic female nude mice (NCr-nu/nu) were purchased from the National Cancer Institute. Mice were treated as per the guidelines of our institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC). S2-013 cells (5 × 10
5) were used for orthotopic injections into the pancreas of nude mice. After 7 days of implantation, mice were divided in groups of nine animals each and fed
ad libitum with a normal diet or a ketogenic diet (composition given in Table S2 in Additional file
1). After 3 weeks of treatment, mice were sacrificed and tumor weight, tumor volume, muscle weight, carcass weight, etc. were recorded. Tumor tissue and other organs were flash frozen in liquid nitrogen for further analysis. Animal protocols were in accordance with the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and were approved by the University of Nebraska Medical Center Animal Care and Use Committee.
Immunohistochemistry
Immunohistochemistry was performed as described previously [
26]. Ki67 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), c-Myc (Epitomics, Burlingame, CA, USA), and Cleaved Caspase 3 (Cell Signaling Technology) primary antibodies were utilized. The stained sections were imaged at × 20 under an upright microscope and representative images were captured and presented.
After confirming the confluence of the cells, the media was aspirated and the cells were washed twice with 1× phosphate buffer to remove remnants of the media before lysing the cells. The cells were then cold shocked with 1 mL of cryogenically cold 80% methanol/water mixture. The plates with the 80% methanol/water were incubated in a −80°C freezer for at least 15 min. The cells from the cold plates were scraped with a cell scraper and pipetted into an Eppendorf tube and centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 5 min. The supernatant was collected and 250 μL of Milli-Q water (Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA) was added to the remaining cell debris for re-extraction. After mixing the cell debris with the water by pipetting, the sample was again centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 5 min. The new supernatant was combined with the previously collected supernatant. Finally, the sample was dried using speed vacuum evaporator (SpeedVac® Plus, Savant, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA) to evaporate the methanol and subjected to freeze drying (Labconco, Kansas City, MO) to lyophilize the water consecutively. The dried sample was made ready for an NMR experiment by dissolving in 600 μL of 50 mM phosphate buffer in 99.8% D2O (Isotec, St. Louis, MO) at pH 7.2 (uncorrected) with 50 μM 3-(tetramethysilane) propionic acid-2,2,3,3-d4 (TMSP) (500 μM for 2D 1H-13C HSQC) for spectral referencing.
NMR experiment and data analysis
The NMR spectra were acquired on a Bruker AVANCE DRX 500 MHz spectrometer equipped with 5 mm triple-resonance cryogenic probe (
1H,
13C, and
15 N) with a Z-axis gradient. The NMR data collection was automated using a BACS-120 sample changer, ATM (automatic tuning and matching), and Bruker IconNMR™ software. The one-dimensional (1D) proton nuclear magnetic resonance (
1H NMR) data was acquired using an excitation sculpting pulse sequence to remove the solvent peak and maintain a flat baseline [
27]. The spectra were collected at 300 K with 32 K data points, 128 scans, 16 dummy scans, and a spectral width of 5,483 Hz. Our MVAPACK software (
http://bionmr.unl.edu/mvapack.php) [
28] was used to process the 1D
1H NMR spectra. The raw NMR data was only Fourier transformed and automatically phased. The resulting NMR spectrum was binned using an adaptive intelligent binning algorithm that automatically adjusts bin sizes to avoid splitting NMR resonances between multiple bins [
29]. The spectral region before the TMSP was used as a training set to remove the noise from the data using the method stated by Halouska
et al.[
30]. The spectra were then normalized using standard normal variate (SNV) and scaled using Pareto scaling. The processed data was utilized to generate plots of principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projections to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) scores and backscaled loadings (Additional file
2) using our MVAPACK software [
28]. Metabolite identification from the 1D
1H NMR spectra was accomplished using the Chenomx NMR Suite 7.6 (
http://www.chenomx.com/) and the backscaled loadings.
The 2D
1H-
13C hetero-nuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) NMR spectra were collected at 300 K with 64 scans, 16 dummy scans, and a 1.5-s relaxation delay. The spectra were collected with 2 K data points and a spectrum width of 4,735 Hz in the direct dimension and 64 data points and a spectrum width of 17,607 Hz in the indirect dimension. The 2D
1H-
13C HSQC NMR spectra were processed using NMRPipe (NIH, Bethesda, Maryland) [
31] and analyzed using NMRViewJ Version 8.0.3. Peak intensities were normalized by the average peak intensity for a given spectrum and then assigned to a metabolite using chemical shift references from the Human Metabolomics Database [
32], Madison Metabolomics Consortium Database [
33], and Platform for RIKEN Metabolomics [
34]. Chemical shift errors of 0.08 and 0.25 ppm for the
1H and
13C chemical shifts, respectively, were used to match the experimental chemical shifts with the databases. In addition to chemical shifts, peak splitting patterns and peak shapes were also used to verify metabolite assignments.
The 2D
1H-
13C HSQC NMR experiment is a more reliable approach for metabolite identification because of the significantly higher signal dispersion, and the correlation between
1H and
13C chemical shifts for each C-H pair in a molecule [
35]. More importantly, the 2D
1H-
13C HSQC experiment simplifies the analysis of the metabolome because only compounds containing a
13C-carbon derived from the
13C
6-glucose added to the media will be detected. Thus, using
13C
6-glucose will highlight metabolite changes associated with the glycolytic flux in tumor cells. This avoids the challenge with the 1D
1H NMR experiments where the spectra were dominated by catabolic products of ketone bodies. Thus, the identification of metabolites from the 2D
1H-
13C HSQC experiments is more reliable and pertinent to the analysis of metabolic changes resulting from ketone body effects on pancreatic cancer cachexia.
Each metabolite peak from the two sets (control and ketone body-treated) of triplicate 2D
1H-
13C HSQC NMR spectra were further normalized by using the maximum peak intensity for the metabolite and then scaled from 0 to 100. The peak intensities for each metabolite were then averaged and compared between the control and treated groups using a Student’s
t test. Metabolites with a
p value <0.1 were used to generate a heat map using the R statistical package [
36]. A relative change in peak intensity implies a corresponding metabolite concentration change. Absolute concentrations are not measurable from the 2D
1H-
13C HSQC because other factors, such as coupling constants, relaxation, and dynamics, also contribute to peak intensities.
Measurement of blood glucose and β-hydroxybutyrate concentration
Blood glucose level of mice was measured after 16 h of starvation by utilizing Contour USB blood glucose meter (Bayer Health Care, Mishawaka, Japan), as per the manufacturer’s protocol. Blood ketone level was measured by utilizing a blood glucose and ketone monitor (Nova Biomedical, Waltham, MA, USA) as per the manufacturer’s protocol. The concentration of β-hydroxybutyrate was measured by comparing the TMSP-normalized methyl peaks of 1H NMR collected for six animals.
C2C12 and 3T3L1 differentiation and conditioned medium preparation
C2C12 mouse myoblasts were grown in DMEM with 10% FBS. To induce differentiation, cells were switched to 2% horse serum and 10 μg/mL insulin-containing DMEM and grown for 72 h. 3T3L1 mouse embryo fibroblasts were cultured in DMEM with 10% FBS. For differentiation of 3T3L1 preadipocytes, after 2 days at confluency, cells were treated with differentiation medium: DMEM containing 10% FBS, 1 μM dexamethasone, 0.5 mM methylisobutylxanthine (IBMX), and 1 μg/mL insulin for 2 days. After 2 days, differentiation medium was replaced with DMEM containing 10% FBS. Medium was changed regularly after 48 h. For conditioned medium preparation, cells were plated at a density of 50,000 cells/cm2, and after 12 h of seeding, cells were washed twice with PBS and cultured in serum-free DMEM for the next 24 h. Conditioned medium was centrifuged at 1,200 g for 10 min and filtered with a 0.2-μm syringe filter and used immediately or stored at −80°C.
Measurement of intracellular pH
Cytosolic pH was measured by using fluorescence spectroscopy using BCPCF-AM as described by Marino
et al.[
37].
Statistical analysis
Comparisons between different groups were performed by using ANOVA (one-way; GraphPad Prism version 4.03) with Dunnett’s post hoc test. Student’s t test was used for in vivo studies. A p value of <0.05 was considered to be significant.
Discussion
Metabolism plays a very important role in cellular function and cell survival. Altered cell metabolism is a hallmark of cancer [
6]. Cellular proliferation is directly dependent on nutrient availability, and most mitogenic signals exert their influence on cell proliferation by regulating nutrient uptake and synthesis of DNA, RNA, protein, and lipids [
46]. It has been shown that enhanced glucose uptake supports the production of intermediates required for biomass production in proliferating cancer cells. In addition, cancer cells also demonstrate altered glutamine uptake and glutaminolysis, which replenish intermediates of tricarboxylic acid cycle and play an important role in the biosynthetic processes [
47]. Our present studies indicate that ketone bodies revert metabolic adaptations in pancreatic cancer cells to induce growth arrest and apoptosis. Our results indicate a reduction in glucose uptake, glycolytic flux, glutamine uptake, lactate secretion, and ATP content in pancreatic cancer cells after treatment with ketone bodies. The reversal of metabolic syndrome in cancer cells by ketone bodies might be related to levels of c-Myc. Furthermore, we demonstrate that metabolic reprogramming of tumor cells by ketone bodies is responsible for diminishing cancer cell-induced cachexia in cell line models and animal models of pancreatic cancer.
Oxidative stress plays an important role in cancer progression, which results from an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the cellular antioxidant defenses. ROS deregulates the redox homeostasis and promotes several inflammatory pathways leading to tumor formation [
48]. Since ketone bodies were shown to diminish cellular glucose and glutamine flux, we also investigated if ketone bodies would diminish cellular ROS levels. We observed a reduction in ROS levels after treatment with ketone bodies. Of note, the anticancerous property of several phytochemicals and dietary compounds is mediated by their antioxidant activity [
48]. Recent studies indicate that β-hydroxybutyrate, the main ketone body found in the body, reduces oxidative stress [
49] and, in turn, functions as a histone deacetylase inhibitor. Inhibition of histone deacetylase activity can suppress or prevent cancer growth as indicated by several studies with histone deacetylase inhibitors that are currently being evaluated for cancer prevention [
50].
Most tumors are highly dependent on glucose as an energy source. For the same reason, several inhibitors of glycolysis have been extensively evaluated in preclinical cancer models [
51]. We observed a reduced expression of glucose transporter GLUT1 and glycolytic enzyme LDHA in pancreatic cancer cells upon treatment with ketone bodies (Figure
3). Inhibition of GLUT1, which is the main transporter of glucose in cancer cells, is currently being considered for cancer therapy [
52]. Also, LDHA inhibition causes reduced cancer cell proliferation [
47]. Furthermore, this present study indicates that ketone bodies diminish c-Myc expression and its occupancy on glycolytic gene promoters. c-Myc is an important regulator of cell growth and proliferation [
39]. In transformed cells, c-Myc enhances the expression of glycolytic genes
GLUT1,
LDHA, and
ENO1 as well as glutaminolytic genes such as
GLS[
53,
54]. c-Myc is considered an attractive therapeutic target due to its role in modulating cell metabolism, tumor initiation, and growth in a variety of cancer types [
53]. Hence, reduced c-Myc expression by ketone bodies might contribute to the growth inhibitory effects of ketone bodies in pancreatic cancer. Previously, it has been reported that c-Myc inhibition leads to regression of lung cancer [
55], bladder cancer [
56], and pancreatic cancer [
57].
Cachexia affects a majority of pancreatic cancer patients and significantly contributes to morbidity and mortality [
3]. However, agents targeting cachexia remain largely elusive. Metabolic adaptations in tumor cells are primarily responsible for the muscle weight loss and the depletion of adipose deposits associated with cachexia. Our study identifies ketone bodies as therapeutic agents that can diminish cancer cachexia by deactivating metabolic adaptations in cancer cells. Herein, we described cell culture-based models for investigating agents targeting cancer cachexia that is a corollary to our animal models of pancreatic cancer cachexia. Our results with the cell culture-based models indicate that ketone bodies significantly inhibit myotube degradation and adipolysis. We also observed a reduced expression of
MuRF1,
Atrogin,
Zag, and
HSL, which are signature genes associated with cachexia (Figure
5). Thus, ketone bodies inhibit pancreatic cancer cell growth along with inhibition of pancreatic cancer-associated cachexia. Our NMR-based metabolomics studies indicate that treatments with ketone bodies significantly alter the metabolite flux in pancreatic cancer cells. We observed reduced cellular levels of glutamine, which is the most abundant amino acid and is involved in the regulation of growth and proliferation of cells. Cancer cell proliferation significantly depends on glutamine availability [
13], and hence, the growth inhibitory effects of ketone bodies might in part be mediated by glutamine availability. Increased proline and lysine levels might play a role in growth inhibition of pancreatic cancer cells. Growth inhibitory effects of proline and lysine are known in bladder cancer cells [
58]. We also observed an accumulation of the TCA metabolite citrate, which inhibits the phosphofructokinase enzyme in the glycolysis pathway and induces apoptosis in cancer cells [
57]. Altogether, the metabolic shift after treatment of ketone bodies might significantly contribute to growth inhibition and apoptosis in cancer cells.
Although a link has been suggested between the metabolic needs of the growing tumor and cachexia syndrome, no studies have evaluated such a relationship. Our studies, for the first time, have confirmed that the metabolic requirements of growing tumor cells are directly responsible for the muscle degradation and lipolysis that are fundamental to the cachexia syndrome. Our results indicate that the inhibition of either glucose uptake by GLUT1 knockdown or chemical inhibition of glycolysis by utilizing BPA in cancer cells diminished myotube degradation and depletion of adipose deposits. Hence, our findings underscore the significance of tumor cell glucose metabolism in facilitating tumor-associated cachexia.
We observed increased concentration of ketone bodies in tumor cells in comparison to plasma; however, we did not explore any concentrative transport mechanisms. For
in vitro studies, we utilized 10- and 20-mM concentrations of ketone bodies that are higher than physiological levels in plasma, but these are somewhat comparable to the concentrations in tumor cells
in vivo (ranging from 0.85 to 7.84 mM; average 2.41 mM), in mice fed with a ketogenic diet. Furthermore, using similar concentrations, we observed no significant alteration in viability of non-transformed pancreatic ductal epithelial cells (Additional file
2). It indicates that the utilized doses do not affect non-cancer cell survival. In addition, our experiments indicate that ketone bodies do get metabolized in tumor cells that would further diminish actual concentration of ketone bodies in the tissues. The need for higher levels of ketone bodies in cell culture conditions to have biological efficacy might in part be due to higher glucose levels in the culture conditions (25 mM) than the physiological concentration (5.5 mM; even lower in tumor-bearing mice). Hence, if the effects of ketone bodies are simply due to decreased tumoral glucose levels, it is expected that the cell culture conditions would require higher doses. Regardless, the discrepancy in the levels of ketone bodies required to achieve the biological effects in culture conditions and in mice models reflects the inherent differences in the two experimental systems.
Diet is a key player in the progression and pathogenesis of cancer. While high-calorie and high-fat diets are associated with increased incidence of cancer [
59], several epidemiological studies have demonstrated a direct relationship between low-sugar diet and a lower incidence of cancer [
60]. Our study indicates a reduced tumor growth and tumor weight, along with a reduced proliferation of tumor cells in tumor-bearing mice that were subjected to a ketogenic diet relative to regular chow. Overall, along with a reduced tumor burden, the ketogenic diet also improved muscle mass and body weight in tumor-bearing mice. Hence, a ketogenic diet may serve as an anticancer agent as well as an anticachectic agent.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Tom Dao for assistance with imaging. This work was supported in part by funding from the National Institutes of Health grants (P20 RR-17675, P30 GM103335, R01 CA163649) to PKS and RP, American Association for Cancer Research (AACR)—Pancreatic Cancer Action Network (PanCAN) Career Development Award (30-20-25-SING) to PKS, the Specialized Programs for Research Excellence (SPORE, P50 CA127297, NCI) Career Development Award to PKS, SPORE (P50 CA127297, NCI) Developmental Research Project Award to PKS, Pancreatic Tumor Microenvironment Research Network (U54, CA163120, NCI) to PKS, LB506 (2014–37, DHHS-NE) to PKS, and Cancer Prevention and Control Nutrition seed grant (15618, GSCN) to PKS. The research was performed in facilities renovated with support from the National Institutes of Health (RR015468-01).
Competing interests
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Authors’ contributions
SKS designed the experiments; performed experiments with cell culture, animal models, and metabolomics studies; and drafted the manuscript. TG performed metabolomics studies. VP performed the animal studies. NVC carried out cell culture studies. VG performed metabolomics studies. PR assisted with the animal studies. KM conceived the study and helped draft the manuscript. IIP participated in the design of the study and helped draft the manuscript. RP designed and supervised metabolomics studies. FY performed and advised for the statistical analyses. PKS participated in its design, execution, and coordination and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.