Background
Resources and personnel often limit comprehensive health services in rural areas. Yet, rural hospitals, fueled by community expectations and the need for expanded revenue sources, have expanded their scope of specialized services, which has led to the development of rural intensive care units (ICUs). Despite the growth in number and use of intensive care services [
1], there is little information about the breadth or quality of these services in the rural setting [
2]. This is particularly true for specialized ICU services such as mechanical ventilation, where no information exists specifically for rural hospitals. (A Medline search performed using the key words ICU, rural hospital and mechanical ventilation produced no similar literature).
Moscovice and Rosenblatt [
3] suggest that the ability of rural hospitals to provide specialized services depends on a number of factors, including the training and interests of local personnel, the ability to maintain performance standards despite a small patient volume, the extent of support resources and financial stability. In previous studies involving rural hospitals, there have been quality concerns surrounding the threshold effect, namely that sufficient patient volume may not be available to maintain requisite skills [
4,
5]. There is evidence that low volumes of specialized services, as frequently occurs in rural hospitals, may result in poorer outcomes [
5,
6,
7].
The main objectives of our study were, therefore, to: (1) determine the quality of care provided for a specific, low-volume patient population; and (2) improve the quality of care if deficiencies were found.
This report provides a description of the baseline data collected for the 3-year study, including differences found in both institutional and patient variables between rural referral hospitals and rural hospitals with more limited resources. The data reported here form a snapshot of rural ICUs: the patients, institutional characteristics, and practice patterns. These baseline data constitute a necessary starting point for evaluating and improving the care given in these settings.
On the basis of practice variations found during the pilot study, the study design included an educational intervention that would be implemented to assist the rural ICU staff in their efforts to provide quality care. The intervention followed medical record audits and included face-to-face provider feedback, written recommendations, reference articles, seminars and telephone consultations. Specific data describing the impact of patient characteristics and process performance on mortality rates have recently been published [
8]. Data describing the specific effects of the outreach educational program on patient care processes and outcomes in the treatment group versus control group have also been published [
9].
Methods
Funded by a grant from the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR), a multidisciplinary study team from a major Midwest academic medical center conducted a systematic evaluation of care provided to mechanically ventilated patients in rural ICUs. The study team consisted of a pulmonologist, research nurse, ICU nurse, respiratory therapist, dietician and pharmacist, all with critical care experience.
Seventy-eight hospitals met eligibility criteria: short-stay hospitals located in a Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA)-designated rural county with a critical care unit. Twenty of the 78 eligible rural Iowa hospitals were randomly selected and contacted. All hospitals contacted agreed to participate in the study and share patient and cost information. Enrollment was limited to 20 hospitals because of the extensive burden of data collection and multiple visits required to each participating facility during the 3-year study. The statistical power of the sample size was approved by the AHCPR.
On the basis of HCFA definitions, two major categories of rural hospitals were identified. A hospital qualified as a rural referral hospital (RRH) if it was in a rural area and met specific criteria concerning bed size, referral patterns or case mix intensity. Seven of the 20 participating hospitals qualified as RRH and represented all the rural referral facilities in the state. The remaining 13 facilities enrolled were termed rural hospitals (RH), which had more limited bed capacities and resources.
Hospital demographic characteristics were supplied by each participating hospital. These included ICU size, average daily census, equipment availability, ICU staff, physician mix, and the availability of specialists and support personnel, including respiratory, pharmacy and dietary professionals.
The data collection tool was based on objective indicators established by the Task Force on Guidelines, Society of Critical Care Medicine [
10]. Using these indicators as a guide, the university team of ICU specialists developed more specific standards based on current practice (Table
1). Standards were made more specific by establishing strict criteria defining the dose, frequency and time frame within which initiation of treatment was expected; for example, task force guidelines recommended measures such as nutritional support, stress ulcer prophylaxis and deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis. The team clarified these measures and included additional criteria. Team standards required that a complete nutritional assessment including the patient's protein and calorie requirements be documented within 72 h of admission to the ICU. Stress ulcer and deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis was required to be initiated by day 2 in the ICU, and minimum therapeutic levels of treatment were established. The tool reflects basic processes of ICU care that should be delivered regardless of available technological resources. The tool allowed evaluation of processes of care in seven major categories: laboratory assessments, nursing care, stomach ulcer protection, thrombosis protection, dietary management, ventilator management and ventilator weaning.
Patient records were selected for team review by International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-9 procedure codes that reflected the presence of mechanical ventilation (96.72, ventilated for longer than 96 h; 96.71, ventilated for less than 96 h; 96.70, period of ventilation unspecified). The patients most desired for this assessment were those ventilated for longer than 96 h. This longer ventilation period allowed sufficient time to evaluate overall patient care management techniques and practice patterns and assured a more homogeneous group of patients between facilities and across time. In rural hospitals with under 100 beds, few patients met the criteria of ventilation for longer than 96 h. Consequently, in these facilities, the medical records of all patients with ventilation codes were reviewed.
Three categories of patients that would be likely to provide limited evidence of ventilator management techniques were excluded from the study: (1) patients on a home ventilator admitted for pulmonary exacerbation or respite care; (2) postoperative patients requiring fewer than 6h of ventilation while anesthetic agents were reversed; and (3) patients shown to be brain dead shortly after admission but ventilated while treatment and organ donation discussions could be conducted with the family. For patients requiring re-admission to the ICU for ventilator support within the same hospital stay, only the first ventilated period was reviewed.
Data were collected from medical records of 224 patients requiring mechanical ventilation while treated in 20 rural Iowa ICUs between 1992 and 1994. One hundred and eleven patients were managed at RRHs, whereas 113 were managed at RHs. Patient variables included age, sex, primary and secondary ICD-9 diagnoses, severity of illness as measured by Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II, medical conditions resulting in difficult or complicated ventilation, admission source (home, emergency room, nursing home, hospital ward, or acute care facility), do not resuscitate (DNR) status, pay class or insurance coverage and discharge disposition (expired, home, skilled nursing facility, intermediate nursing care facility, other hospital and tertiary facility). For those patients transferred to the tertiary setting, the discharge disposition was also evaluated. A list of 10 medical conditions resulting in difficult or complicated ventilation was developed through consensus of a team of critical care specialists. This variable was monitored because the decision to select appropriate patients for tertiary transfer was considered a process of care. The conditions and related definitions are as follows.
(1)
Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) required diffuse bilateral infiltrates, PO2 divided by FiO2 < 200 (both required) and, if pulmonary artery catheter was in use, a wedge pressure < 18.
(2)
Status asthmaticus with hypercapnea despite adequate ventilation required diagnosis by the contact physician.
(3)
Neurologic catastrophe was defined by an acute deterioration in Glasgow coma score without a specific diagnosis for the decline.
(4)
Pneumothorax complicating ARDS or status asthmaticus required diagnosis by the contact physician or radiologist.
(5)
Multiple organ failure required diagnosis by the contact physician that two or more organs were in failure (respiratory failure was assumed in all patients requiring mechanical ventilation).
(6)
Sepsis syndrome with disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC) or coagulopathy required sepsis as defined in Appendix A in nosocomial events and DIC/coagulopathy defined as a drop in platelet count by 25% from baseline and an increase in prothrombin time (PT) or presence of fibrin degradation products.
(7)
Ventilation with peak pressures > 50 and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP)> 15 was defined by these parameters.
(8)
Complex chest trauma involved documentation of flail chest or multiple rib fractures and cardiac or pulmonary contusions or extensive subcutaneous emphysemaor hemothorax.
(9)
Failure to wean required diagnosis by the contact physician.
(10)
Complex overdose was defined as overdose requiring treatment by dialysis.
Outcome variables included length of stay, ventilation days, nosocomial events, discharge disposition, and survival. Patients with acute respiratory failure are at risk for a number of nosocomial events. Eighteen of these events were described by Pingleton [
11] in her work on complications occurring in patients with acute respiratory failure and were incorporated into the data collection tool. A nosocomial event was defined as an event that occurred in the ICU that was not present or incubating at the time of admission. Definitions for each nosocomial event were developed from several sources and established by the review team. Definitions for infectious events were based on the Center for Disease Control (CDC) criteria. Definitions for mechanical events were based on Pingleton's publication, supporting references, criteria utilized by the risk management division at our institution or criteria developed through consensus of the critical care team. Events and associated definitions are provided in Appendix A.
The study protocol was approved by the Internal Review Board of our academic medical center and deemed exempt from the need for informed consent.
Discussion
Development of specialized areas of care for the critically ill has occurred in most hospitals in the USA [
1,
12,
13], leading to the growth in number and utilization of ICUs. Despite this growth, there is little information available related to the demographics and quality of rural ICUs [
2]. Without specific data on outcomes of rural ICU patient care, it is difficult to evaluate quality of care issues. This lack of data is of particular interest when committees have tried to rationalize and justify regionalization of critical care in rural areas [
2,
3].
In the rural centers, the emergency room (ER) was the source of admission for 56% of the ICU patients. Escarce and Kelley [
14] have suggested that patients admitted to the ICU from the ER often have improved survival rates when compared with patients being admitted to the ICU from other areas. We might anticipate, therefore, that the high percentage of admissions from ERs into rural ICUs could have a favorable impact on survival rates in those ICUs. Undoubtedly, the rural ER has a critical role in providing triage and stabilization of acutely ill patients.
The mean ICU bed occupancy rate of 53% found in all rural hospitals indicates that there was generally an ICU bed available to admit a critically ill patient. ICU bed availability might be an advantage to the rural hospitals by allowing prompt implementation and management of life-sustaining interventions.
Higher mortality rates were found for rural patients with conditions which required complicated ventilation. Mortality rates in rural patients with conditions such as ARDS, MODS, and sepsis with DIC were 53%, 58% and 63%, respectively. These rates are higher than the overall rural mortality rate of 36%. This suggests there are certain high-risk patients who may benefit from transfer to a tertiary care center with greater resources and technology. The significantly higher mortality rates for persons with high-risk conditions suggests that these conditions might serve as primary indicators for evaluating the appropriateness of transferring patients to tertiary care centers.
There are many similarities in demographics and patient characteristics between the small RHs and the RRHs, including mean age, sex, APACHE II score, mortality and the rate of transfer. The most striking differences occur in the variation for lengths of stay in total hospital days, ICU days and ventilator days. This longer length of stay for RRHs cannot be explained by patient record selection alone. In looking for patients ventilated for significant time periods, few were found in the small rural centers. This may indicate that patients with complex medical illnesses, living in counties supported by a small RH may seek acute care and admission from physicians providing services in association with referral centers. This selection process may contribute to the favorable mortality rates for these smaller units. The longer length of stay in the RRHs is likely to have contributed to the higher nosocomial event rate.
Certain limitations of this study need to be acknowledged. First, since the study enrollment was limited to just 20 hospitals, it is not possible to know how representative these were when compared with RHs in other geographic areas. Second, our exclusion criteria eliminated patients requiring only brief periods of ventilation. Had rapidly extubated patients with a good prognosis been included, survival rates might have been higher. Also, exclusion of patients who were ventilated briefly before transfer to another facility may have affected survival rates. Despite these limitations, this study, for the first time to our knowledge, provides information on rural hospital demographics and patient characteristics. These baseline data constitute the starting point for evaluating the quality issues associated with low patient volume. Similar data collection from other rural hospitals in geographically distinct areas may provide the data set required to re-evaluate the opportunities for regionalization of critical care in rural areas. The concept of regionalization for specific diagnoses has been supported by other studies [
2,
15]. On the basis of the higher mortality rates seen in rural patients with medical conditions resulting in difficult or complicated ventilation, our data seem to support the suggestion by Moscovice and Rosenblatt [
3] that success in rural hospitals is best actualized through 'compartmentalization' or the ability to provide only that care which can be performed safely, efficiently and effectively. Early triage and appropriate identification of those high-risk patients who might benefit from transfer to a facility with specialized technology and greater resources may further reduce the mortality currently seen in patients admitted to rural ICUs.