SP and neurokinin A are encoded by the gene PPT-A. Neurokinins exert a variety of biological activities including nociception, synaptic transmission (as excitatory neurotransmitters), and neurogenic inflammation. In particular, SP is the best characterized of these neuropeptides and has been shown to be related to nociceptive (pain) responses and neurogenic inflammation. SP often coexists and is co-released with CGRP [
49] and glutamate [
50] in the TG and TNC. It is known that in response to prolonged noxious stimuli, SP and CGRP are released from trigeminal sensory nerve fibers around dural blood vessels, leading to endothelium dependent vasodilation, increased microvascular permeability, and plasma and protein extravasation. TRPA1 channels in primary sensory neurons frequently co-localize with CGRP and SP [
5,
51] and their activation after NTG administration could promote neuron depolarization and the consequent biosynthesis and releasing of neuropeptides. TRPA1 channels are also expressed on a multitude of non-neuronal sites. Formalin injection may indeed induce TRPA1 activation in various cell types including keratinocytes [
52], which may release a large variety of different mediators to indirectly activate and/or sensitize primary sensory neurons [
53,
54]. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that a direct effect on TG or at central level may occur as well as an indirect activation via exposed keratinocytes or other cells in the nerve endings proximity. TRPA1 channels have also been described in macrophages [
55,
56], thus it is also possible an effect of ADM_12 on these cells by inhibition of NF-κB activation and other inflammatory mediators that may interact with sensory nerves to affect pain and neurogenic inflammation.
Here, we report a significant increasing in Calca and PPT-A mRNA expression in the evaluated areas 4 h after NTG, while no difference in protein expression was found at the same time point in the TNC. This apparently paradoxical finding may be related to compensatory mechanisms aimed at reintegrating CGRP and SP stores after these neuropeptides have been released at the trigeminovascular endings subsequently to the NTG administration [
27]. In a previous study, we detected a reduction in CGRP-immunoreactivity (ir) that occurred from the 1st until the 4th hour after NTG administration, while SP-ir increased transiently 1 h after NTG administration and returned to baselined levels at the 4th hour [
27]. In the present study, we have evaluated CGRP and SP protein expression 5 h after NTG administration, it is therefore possible that the discrepancy observed is related to the different timings required for the different biological processes (synthesis of mRNA on one side and storage of newly synthetized peptides on the other) and to the different time of evaluation (4 h in our previous study, 5 h in the present one). Other studies show an increase in CGRP release from the TG neurons during neurogenic inflammation or after NO donor treatments together with an increased CGRP gene transcription [
57,
58]. In addition, stimulation of peripheral afferent fibers causes SP release within the trigeminal ganglia and this release is greatly amplified following orofacial inflammation [
59]. Similarly, a significant increasing in the expression of SP was found 2 h after orofacial formalin test in the TNC [
60]. Altogether, our results reinforce the role of SP and CGRP in persistent pain by acting at both peripheral and central levels. In the experimental condition of NTG-induced hyperalgesia, the increased levels of NO and the release of inflammatory agents can sensitize the TRPA1 channels, thus amplifying neuropeptides release. In this frame, the inhibitory effect of ADM_12 on Calca and PPT-A mRNA expression suggests its capability to reduce NTG-induced formation/release of neuropeptides. In line with our observations, Nakamura et al., [
61] demonstrated that TRPA1 activation evokes SP release from the primary sensory neurons through phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, via an increase in intracellular Ca
2+, and inflammatory responses.