Background
Methods
The Maastricht Study
Study design, subject eligibility and recruitment
Research questions
Diagnosis of diabetes
Diagnosis of depression and anxiety disorder
Symptoms of depression and anxiety
Personality traits
Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics
Statistical analyses
Results
Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics
No type 2 diabetes (n = 609) | Type 2 diabetes (n = 253) |
p-value | |
---|---|---|---|
Age, years | 58 ± 8.6 | 64 ± 7.0 | < 0.001 |
Male sex, n (%) | 296 (49 %) | 176 (70 %) | < 0.001 |
Partner, n (%) | 515 (85 %) | 208 (85 %) | 0.98 |
Educational level, % low/middle/high | 12/39/49 | 28/47/25 | <0.001 |
HbA1c, % | 5.65 ± 0.37 | 6.91 ± 0.88 | < 0.001 |
Diabetes duration, years | - | 7 [3–11] | |
Diabetes medication, % no/oral/insulin | - | 22/57/21 | |
Smoking, % never/former/current | 34/49/17 | 22/64/14 | |
Pack years | 4 [0–18] | 15 [0–33] | < 0.001 |
Body mass index, kg/m2
| 26.3 ± 4.0 | 29.8 ± 4.7 | < 0.001 |
Systolic blood pressure, mmHg | 133 ± 18 | 146 ± 19 | < 0.001 |
Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg | 76 ± 10 | 78 ± 10 | 0.004 |
Total cholesterol, mmol/l | 5.5 ± 1.1 | 4.4 ± 1.0 | < 0.001 |
HDL cholesterol, mmol/l | 1.40 ± 0.41 | 1.12 ± 0.40 | < 0.001 |
LDL cholesterol, mmol/l | 3.5 ± 1.0 | 2.6 ± 0.9 | < 0.001 |
Triglycerides, mmol/l | 1.3 ± 0.9 | 1.8 ± 1.0 | < 0.001 |
Prevalence of psychological distress and personality traits in type 2 diabetes
No type 2 diabetes | Type 2 diabetes |
p-value | |
---|---|---|---|
Depressive symptoms | |||
PHQ-9 score |
2.46 ± 3.18
|
3.26 ± 4.53
|
0.020
|
PHQ-9 ≥ 10 | 23 (4.2 %) | 16 (7.8 %) | 0.081 |
Depressive disorder | |||
Depressive disorder (MINI) | 33 (5.5 %) | 22 (8.8 %) | 0.105 |
Lifetime depressive episode (MINI) | 220 (36.5 %) | 86 (34.3 %) | 0.538 |
Dysthymia (MINI) | 5 (0.8 %) | 7 (2.8 %) |
a
|
Anxiety symptoms | |||
GAD-7 score | 2.59 ± 3.59 | 2.83 ± 4.01 | 0.444 |
GAD-7 ≥ 10 | 29 (5.4 %) | 14 (7 %) | 0.424 |
Anxiety disorders | |||
Current panic disorder | 4 (0.7 %) | 3 (1.2 %) |
a
|
Lifetime panic disorder | 26 (4.3 %) | 6 (2.4 %) |
a
|
Current agoraphobia | 35 (5.8 %) | 24 (9.6 %) | 0.073 |
Current social phobia | 9 (1.5 %) | 3 (1.2 %) |
a
|
Type D personality | |||
Social inhibition |
8.55 ± 4.63
|
9.62 ± 5.27
|
0.013
|
Social inhibition score ≥ 10 |
189 (36.4 %)
|
87 (45.1 %)
|
0.038
|
Negative affectivity |
7.47 ± 4.93
|
8.54 ± 5.65
|
0.020
|
Negative affectivity score ≥ 10 |
140 (27 %)
|
70 (36.3 %)
|
0.020
|
Type D personality |
79 (15.2 %)
|
44 (22.8 %)
|
0.027
|
Big Five personality traits | |||
Extraversion |
30.4 ± 6.5
|
28.9 ± 7.4
|
0.016
|
Agreeableness |
34.8 ± 3.7
|
33.7 ± 4.8
|
0.004
|
Conscientiousness |
32.6 ± 5.7
|
31.1 ± 5.9
|
0.002
|
Emotional stability |
30.6 ± 6.3
|
29.5 ± 7.0
|
0.058
|
Openness |
28.5 ± 6.5
|
28.0 ± 6.4
|
0.287
|
Association of type 2 diabetes with psychological distress and personality traits
Type 2 diabetes versus no diabetes | |||
---|---|---|---|
Odds ratioa
| (95 % CI) |
p-value | |
Depressive symptoms | |||
PHQ-9 score |
1.10
|
(1.05–1.15)
|
<0.001
|
PHQ-9 ≥ 10 |
3.15
|
(1.49–6.67)
|
0.003
|
Depressive disorder | |||
Depressive disorder (MINI) | 1.73 | (0.83–3.60) | 0.156 |
Lifetime depressive episode (MINI) | 0.97 | (0.69–1.36) | 0.862 |
Anxiety symptoms | |||
GAD-7 score | 1.03 | (0.99–1.08) | 0.162 |
GAD-7 ≥ 10 | 1.50 | (0.72–3.12) | 0.280 |
Type D personality | |||
Social inhibition |
1.04
|
(1.00–1.08)
|
0.032
|
Social inhibition score ≥ 10 | 1.35 | (0.93–1.94) | 0.112 |
Negative affectivity |
1.05
|
(1.02–1.09)
|
0.004
|
Negative affectivity score ≥ 10 |
1.70
|
(1.14–2.51)
|
0.009
|
Type D personality |
1.95
|
(1.23–3.10)
|
0.005
|
Big Five personality traits | |||
Extraversion |
0.97
|
(0.95–1.00)
|
0.023
|
Agreeableness |
0.94
|
(0.90–0.98)
|
0.003
|
Conscientiousness |
0.94
|
(0.91–0.97)
|
<0.001
|
Emotional stability |
0.97
|
(0.94–0.99)
|
0.013
|
Openness | 1.00 | (0.97–1.03) | 0.938 |