Background
Methods
Subjects
Determination of rural and urban areas of living
Anthropometric measurements
Testing physical fitness
Testing order | Fitness test item | Motor ability | Test description | Unit of measurement |
---|---|---|---|---|
Day 1, station 1 | Isometric handgrip strength | Upper body strength | The maximal force exerted by squeezing a handgrip dynamometer | (kg) |
Day 1, station 2 | Sit-and-reach test | Flexibility | Maximal reach while sitting with extended knees | (cm) |
Day 1, Station 3 | Standing long jump | Lower body power | Maximal horizontal jump distance from a standing position | (cm) |
Day 2, station 1 | Countermovement jump | Lower body power | Maximal vertical jump distance from a standing position | (cm) |
Day 2, station 2 | 10/20 m sprint | Speed | Minimal time needed on a 10/20 m distance run | (s) |
Day 2, station 3 | Multistage fitness test | Aerobic endurance | Maximal levels achieved while increasing the running speed | (number of shuttles) |
Upper body strength
Lower body strength/power
Speed
Cardiorespiratory fitness
Flexibility
Statistical analyses
Results
Descriptive characteristics of the study population
Effect of living area on anthropometrics and motor abilities
Boys | Girls |
p-values | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urban (n = 118) | Rural (n = 77) | Urban (n = 98) | Rural (n = 61) | Sex | Area | Sex x Area | |
Age (years) | 14.6 ± 0.4 | 14.6 ± 0.4 | 14.5 ± 0.4 | 14.4 ± 0.3 |
0.009
| 0.185 | 0.309 |
Height (m) | 1.71 ± 0.08 | 1.69 ± 0.07 | 1.62 ± 0.06 | 1.62 ± 0.06 |
< 0.001
| 0.132 | 0.644 |
Body mass (kg) | 63.1 ± 13.6 | 62.6 ± 14.2 | 57.5 ± 11.1 | 55.5 ± 12.1 |
< 0.001
| 0.393 | 0.584 |
Body mass index (kg·m−2) | 21.5 ± 4.2 | 21.7 ± 4.1 | 21.7 ± 3.8 | 21.0 ± 3.9 | 0.587 | 0.601 | 0.399 |
Waist circumference (cm) | 76.4 ± 9.5 | 75.7 ± 10.6 | 71.8 ± 7.9 | 69.8 ± 9.1 |
< 0.001
| 0.181 | 0.516 |
Sum of skinfolds (mm) | 42.5 ± 23.9 | 43.5 ± 32.3 | 55.9 ± 23.2 | 51.8 ± 26.2 |
< 0.001
| 0.587 | 0.370 |
Body fat (%) | 18.2 ± 6.2 | 17.9 ± 7.0 | 26.5 ± 4.5 | 25.1 ± 5.4 |
< 0.001
| 0.187 | 0.430 |
Grip strength (kg) | 34.7 ± 7.3 | 36.2 ± 8.1 | 25.9 ± 4.3 | 26.0 ± 4.6 |
< 0.001
| 0.277 | 0.312 |
Relative grip strength (kg·kg·BM−1) | 0.56 ± 0.09 | 0.59 ± 0.11 | 0.46 ± 0.09 | 0.48 ± 0.08 |
< 0.001
|
0.032
| 0.518 |
Standing long jump (cm) | 175.6 ± 22.3 | 170.5 ± 26.7 | 130.2 ± 18.1 | 130.5 ± 22.7 |
< 0.001
| 0.321 | 0.264 |
Counter movement jump (cm) | 38.6 ± 5.5 | 37.1 ± 5.9 | 29.3 ± 4.6 | 29.5 ± 5.6 |
< 0.001
| 0.288 | 0.174 |
10 m sprint (s) | 2.14 ± 0.15 | 2.08 ± 0.13 | 2.43 ± 0.17 | 2.40 ± 0.18 |
< 0.001
|
0.012
| 0.334 |
20 m sprint (s) | 3.69 ± 0.27 | 3.61 ± 0.26 | 4.33 ± 0.30 | 4.28 ± 0.32 |
< 0.001
|
0.035
| 0.591 |
Multistage fitness test (levels) | 6.5 ± 1.7 | 6.3 ± 2.3 | 3.5 ± 1.1 | 3.6 ± 1.0 |
< 0.001
| 0.574 | 0.462 |
Multistage fitness test (m) | 934 ± 459 | 919 ± 459 | 407 ± 179 | 415 ± 182 |
< 0.001
| 0.925 | 0.727 |
VO2max (ml·kg-1·min−1) | 45.0 ± 4.6 | 44.1 ± 6.3 | 37.2 ± 2.9 | 37.3 ± 2.9 |
< 0.001
| 0.412 | 0.343 |
Sit and reach (cm) | 20.8 ± 7.3 | 21.5 ± 6.5 | 26.7 ± 6.4 | 26.0 ± 6.5 |
< 0.001
| 0.989 | 0.312 |
Effects of body mass and body fat content on performance parameters
Boys | Girls | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low weight (a) | Normal weight (b) | Overweight & Obese (c) |
p-value | Low weight (a) | Normal weight (b) | Overweight & Obese (c) |
p-value | |
N (%) | 13 (6.7%) | 127 (65.1%) | 55 (28.2%) | 13 (8.2%) | 116 (77.3%) | 30 (18.9%) | ||
Age (years) | 14.6 ± 0.41
| 14.6 ± 0.41
| 14.6 ± 0.41
| 0.779 | 14.5 ± 0.31
| 14.5 ± 0.41
| 14.6 ± 0.31
| 0.258 |
Height (m) | 1.62 ± 0.081
| 1.71 ± 0.072
| 1.71 ± 0.072
| < 0.001 (ab, ac)***
| 1.64 ± 0.061
| 1.62 ± 0.051
| 1.65 ± 0.061
| 0.069 |
Body mass (kg) | 41.5 ± 6.41
| 58.3 ± 7.12
| 78.7 ± 12.03
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)***
| 44.2 ± 4.01
| 53.5 ± 6.02
| 74.7 ± 11.23
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)***
|
Body mass index (kg·m−2) | 15.7 ± 1.21
| 19.8 ± 1.72
| 27.0 ± 3.13
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)***
| 16.4 ± 0.61
| 20.4 ± 1.82
| 27.6 ± 3.63
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)***
|
Waist circumference (cm) | 63.1 ± 4.21
| 72.4 ± 4.22
| 87.8 ± 9.93
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)***
| 62.8 ± 4.21
| 68.7 ± 5.32
| 83.5 ± 7.43
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)**
|
Skinfold sum (mm) | 22.4 ± 2.41
| 31.4 ± 8.71
| 74.3 ± 33.32
| < 0.001 (ac, bc)***
| 29.8 ± 5.31
| 47.5 ± 12.52
| 91.3 ± 27.33
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)**
|
Body fat (%) | 11.5 ± 1.41
| 15.4 ± 3.42
| 25.7 ± 6.23
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)**
| 19.4 ± 2.21
| 24.8 ± 3.22
| 33.0 ± 3.83
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)***
|
Grip strength (kg) | 26.4 ± 5.91
| 34.5 ± 7.22
| 39.1 ± 7.03
| <0.001 (ab, ac, bc)***
| 23.1 ± 4.21
| 25.5 ± 3.91
| 28.8 ± 5.22
| < 0.001 (ac, bc)***
|
Relative grip strength (kg·kg BM−1) | 0.63 ± 0.072
| 0.59 ± 0.102
| 0.50 ± 0.091
| <0.001 (ac, bc)***
| 0.52 ± 0.072
| 0.48 ± 0.072
| 0.39 ± 0.091
| <0.001 (ac, bc)***
|
Standing long jump (cm) | 171.6 ± 24.31
| 177.7 ± 22.31
| 164.6 ± 26.21
| 0.003 (bc)**
| 145.7 ± 28.53
| 131.9 ± 18.32
| 117.3 ± 14.61
| < 0.001 (ab, ac, bc)*
|
CMJ (cm) | 37.0 ± 6.71
| 39.0 ± 5.41
| 35.9 ± 5.61
| 0.002 (bc)**
| 32.7 ± 4.02
| 29.9 ± 4.92
| 26.2 ± 4.61
| <0.001 (ac, bc)**
|
10 m sprint (s) | 2.11 ± 0.171,2
| 2.09 ± 0.141
| 2.19 ± 0.142
| < 0.001 (bc)***
| 2.35 ± 0.171
| 2.42 ± 0.171,2
| 2.48 ± 0.172
| 0.070 |
20 m sprint (s) | 3.67 ± 0.341,2
| 3.59 ± 0.231
| 3.82 ± 0.272
| < 0.001 (bc)***
| 4.18 ± 0.311
| 4.29 ± 0.301,2
| 4.47 ± 0.342
| 0.004 (ac, bc)*
|
MSFT (levels) | 6.0 ± 1.71
| 7.1 ± 1.72
| 4.9 ± 1.71
| < 0.001 (bc)***
| 3.8 ± 1.22
| 3.7 ± 1.01,2
| 3.0 ± 1.01
| 0.008 (bc)*
|
MSFT (m) | 837 ± 3111
| 1069 ± 3532
| 624 ± 3001
| <0.001 (bc)***
| 445 ± 1941
| 429 ± 1781
| 323 ± 1561
| 0.011 (bc)*
|
VO2max (ml·kg−1·min−1) | 43.0 ± 4.71
| 46.6 ± 4.72
| 40.6 ± 4.51
| < 0.001 (ab, bc)*
| 37.6 ± 3.01
| 37.6 ± 2.91
| 35.8 ± 2.81
| 0.008 (bc)**
|
Sit and reach (cm) | 18.1 ± 6.81
| 20.8 ± 7.01
| 22.5 ± 6.71
| 0.095 | 25.3 ± 7.91
| 26.2 ± 6.41
| 28.0 ± 5.81
| 0.309 |
Boys | Girls | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normal body fat | High body fat |
p-value | Normal body fat | High body fat |
p-value | |
N (%) | 164 (84.1%) | 31 (15.9%) | 130 (81.8%) | 29 (18.2%) | ||
Age (years) | 14.6 ± 0.4 | 14.6 ± 0.4 | 0.728 | 14.5 ± 0.4 | 14.6 ± 0.4 | 0.121 |
Height (m) | 1.70 ± 0.08 | 1.71 ± 0.06 | 0.700 | 1.62 ± 0.05 | 1.65 ± 0.06 *
| 0.017 |
Body mass (kg) | 59.0 ± 10.0 | 83.5 ± 13.2 ***
| < 0.001 | 52.9 ± 6.7 | 74.1 ± 12.6 ***
| < 0.001 |
Body mass index (kg·m−2) | 20.3 ± 2.8 | 28.5 ± 3.3 ***
| < 0.001 | 20.1 ± 2.3 | 27.2 ± 4.3 ***
| < 0.001 |
Waist circumference (cm) | 73.0 ± 6.4 | 92.9 ± 8.6 ***
| < 0.001 | 68.3 ± 5.8 | 83.2 ± 7.8 ***
| < 0.001 |
Skinfold sum (mm) | 32.8 ± 10.9 | 96.2 ± 27.2 ***
| < 0.001 | 45.0 ± 11.2 | 96.1 ± 23.8 ***
| < 0.001 |
Body fat (%) | 15.8 ± 3.9 | 30.0 ± 3.6 ***
| < 0.001 | 24.2 ± 3.2 | 33.8 ± 3.0 ***
| < 0.001 |
Grip strength (kg) | 34.6 ± 7.5 | 38.8 ± 7.6 **
| 0.005 | 25.5 ± 4.2 | 27.8 ± 4.8 **
| 0.010 |
Relative grip strength (kg·kg·BM−1) | 0.59 ± 0.09 | 0.47 ± 0.08 ***
| < 0.001 | 0.48 ± 0.07 | 0.38 ± 0.08 ***
| < 0.001 |
Standing long jump (cm) | 178.2 ± 22.3 | 149.2 ± 19.0 ***
| < 0.001 | 133.4 ± 19.8 | 116.5 ± 14.0 ***
| < 0.001 |
CMJ (cm) | 38.9 ± 5.3 | 33.5 ± 5.5 ***
| < 0.001 | 30.3 ± 4.9 | 25.5 ± 4.0 ***
| < 0.001 |
10 m sprint (s) | 2.10 ± 0.14 | 2.23 ± 0.15 ***
| < 0.001 | 2.41 ± 0.17 | 2.47 ± 0.19 | 0.080 |
20 m sprint (s) | 3.62 ± 0.25 | 3.88 ± 0.28 ***
| < 0.001 | 4.27 ± 0.30 | 4.50 ± 0.33 ***
| < 0.001 |
MSFT (levels) | 6.8 ± 1.8 | 4.4 ± 1.4 ***
| < 0.001 | 3.7 ± 1.1 | 2.9 ± 0.7 ***
| < 0.001 |
MSFT (m) | 999 ± 371 | 553 ± 244 ***
| < 0.001 | 436 ± 181 | 294 ± 116 ***
| < 0.001 |
VO2max (ml·kg−1·min−1) | 45.7 ± 5.0 | 39.2 ± 3.8 ***
| < 0.001 | 37.6 ± 2.9 | 35.4 ± 2.1 ***
| < 0.001 |
Sit and reach (cm) | 21.0 ± 6.8 | 21.6 ± 8.0 | 0.666 | 26.3 ± 6.5 | 27.3 ± 6.2 | 0.426 |
Determinants of being thin or overweight
Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low weight | Overweight & Obese | Low weight | Overweight & Obese | Low weight | Overweight & Obese | |
OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | |
Gender a
| ||||||
Female | 1.095 (0.488–2.458) | 0.597 (0.358–0.996)*
| 1.032 (0.210–5.068) | 0.037 (0.010–0.137)***
| 1.010 (0.458–1.337) | 0.109 (0.031–0.336)***
|
Area of livingb
| ||||||
Rural area | 1.162 (0.512–2.639) | 1.006 (0.606–1.670) | 1.038 (0.403–2.675) | 0.713 (0.317–1.604) | 1.012 (0.683–1.245) | 0.888 (0.596–1.134) |
Grip strength (kg) | 0.868 (0.802–0.940)***
| 1.090 (1.054–1.126)***
| 0.789 (0.710–0.877)***
| 1.229 (1.149–1.314)***
| 0.923 (0.886–0.958)***
| 1.062 (1.042–1.081)***
|
Standing long jump (cm) | 1.003 (0.990–1.016) | 0.992 (0.983–1.000)*
| 1.027 (0.998–1.058) | 0.983 (0.962–1.004) | 1.008 (0.999–1.018) | 0.995 (0.998–1.001) |
CMJ (cm) | 1.004 (0.946–1.065) | 0.954 (0.919–0.990)*
| 1.076 (0.944–1.227) | 0.935 (0.856–1.022) | 1.023 (0.982–1.062) | 0.979 (0.950–1.007) |
20 m sprint (s) | 0.989 (0.384–2.548) | 1.919 (1.089–3.379)*
| 0.460 (0.036–5.834) | 5.591 (1.075–29.077)*
| 0.731 (0.106–1.352) | 1.347 (1.022–1.435)*
|
MSFT (m) | 0.999 (0.998–1.000) | 0.998 (0.997–0.998)***
| 0.998 (0.996–1.000) | 0.996 (0.995–0.998)***
| 0.999 (0.999–1.000) | 0.999 (0.998–0.999)***
|
Sit and reach (cm) | 0.969 (0.917–1.024) | 1.020 (0.985–1.057) | 0.958 (0.889–1.034) | 1.047 (0.997–1.100) | 0.986 (0.962–1.010) | 1.014 (0.999–1.029) |
Determinants of body fat content
Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | ||
---|---|---|---|
High body fat | High body fat | High body hat | |
OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | |
Gender a
| |||
Female | 1.180 (0.677–2.058) | 0.040 (0.009–0.176)***
| 0.197 (0.051–0.558)***
|
Area of livingb
| |||
Rural area | 1.243 (0.708–2.180) | 0.599 (0.229–1.569) | 0.898 (0.637–1.065) |
Grip strength (kg) | 1.046 (1.011–1.082)*
| 1.212 (1.126–1.303)***
| 1.031 (1.019–1.041)***
|
Standing long jump (cm) | 0.969 (0.958–0.980)***
| 0.940 (0.914–0.966)***
| 0.989 (0.984–0.994)***
|
CMJ (cm) | 0.879 (0.838–0.921)***
| 0.866 (0.781–0.960)**
| 0.974 (0.955–0.993)**
|
20 m sprint (s) | 4.152 (2.146–8.035)***
| 0.572 (0.090–3.612) | 0.887 (0.368–1.140) |
MSFT (m) | 0.997 (0.996–0.998)***
| 0.996 (0.994–0.998)***
| 0.999 (0.999–1.000)***
|
Sit and reach (cm) | 1.020 (0.981–1.061) | 1.034 (0.980–1.092) | 1.006 (0.997–1.014) |