Background
Methods
Subjects
Subject
|
Age
|
Gender
|
Weight (kg)
|
Height (m)
|
BMI
|
Body fat %
|
TEE (kcal/day)
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 28 | M | 79.1 | 1.68 | 28.0 | 24.2 | 1899 |
2 | 41 | F | 49.4 | 1.69 | 17.3 | 13.1 | 1398 |
3 | 35 | M | 77.1 | 1.88 | 21.8 | 10.8 | 1800 |
4 | 21 | M | 65.6 | 1.82 | 19.8 | 8.6 | 3030 |
5 | 24 | M | 90.5 | 1.68 | 32.1 | 29.0 | 2283 |
6 | 23 | M | 70.0 | 1.80 | 21.6 | 12.4 | 2592 |
7 | 37 | F | 63.3 | 1.61 | 24.4 | 33.3 | 2112 |
8 | 23 | M | 85.5 | 1.78 | 27.0 | 21.4 | 1969 |
9 | 23 | M | 94.3 | 1.93 | 25.3 | 20.0 | 3398 |
10 | 25 | F | 52.8 | 1.70 | 18.3 | 10.8 | 2232 |
11 | 20 | F | 52.5 | 1.69 | 18.4 | 12.4 | 2238 |
Physiological and metabolic parameters
Diet study design
Food
|
Amount
|
Total F (g)
|
Total C (g)
|
Total P (g)
|
Fiber (g)
|
Cholesterol (mg)
|
Total calories (kcal)
|
Ratio of fat: (carb + protein) by mass
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sat. F (g)
|
Unsat. F (g)
| |||||||||
Diet A
| Black Coffee (no cream, no sugar) | 2 cup | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2 |
0.18
|
Classic pork breakfast sausage | 1 patty | 2.0 | 3.5 | 0.0 | 4.0 | 0.0 | 40.0 | 66 | ||
Yoplait Yogurt | 1 serving | 1.0 | 0.5 | 33.0 | 5.0 | 0.0 | 10.0 | 165 | ||
Chicken Alfredo with Fettuccine and Broccoli | 1 serving | 9.3 | 8.0 | 50.0 | 26.0 | 5.0 | 100.0 | 470 | ||
Sesame Noodle with Vegetables | 1 serving | 0.5 | 2.0 | 55.0 | 10.0 | 7.0 | 0.0 | 280 | ||
Gala Apple (small, raw, with skin) | 2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 32.0 | 0.0 | 5.0 | 0.0 | 132 | ||
Sweet and Sour Chicken with White Rice | 0.5 serving | 1.5 | 5.5 | 28.0 | 5.0 | 1.5 | 10.0 | 195 | ||
Chopped pecans | 17 g | 1.1 | 11.0 | 2.4 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 0.0 | 125 | ||
Beef Steak and Noodles | 1 serving | 6.0 | 8.0 | 51.0 | 33.0 | 4.0 | 105.00 | 462 | ||
Total
|
60.4
|
251.4
|
85.4
|
24.3
|
265
|
1897
| ||||
% Energy from food
|
29%
|
53%
|
18%
| |||||||
Diet B
| Classic pork breakfast sausage | 4 patty | 8.0 | 14.0 | 0.0 | 16.0 | 0.0 | 160.0 | 262 |
1.63
|
Pine nuts | 57 g | 5.2 | 63.2 | 22.8 | 11.4 | 3.1 | 0.0 | 752 | ||
Deli Delux American Cheese | 2 slice | 8.0 | 6.0 | 0.0 | 8.0 | 0.0 | 40.0 | 158 | ||
Avocado | 95 g | 2.0 | 11.3 | 7.6 | 1.9 | 6.5 | 0.0 | 158 | ||
Philadelphia Cream cheese | 10 g | 1.9 | 1.3 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 11.0 | 33 | ||
Roasted Almonds | 84 g | 3.0 | 42.0 | 15.0 | 18.0 | 9.0 | 0.0 | 537 | ||
Total
|
165.9
|
45.8
|
56
|
46.9
|
211
|
1,900
| ||||
% Energy from food
|
79%
|
9%
|
12%
| |||||||
Diet C
| Mild sausage patties | 6 patty | 27.5 | 44.5 | 0.0 | 24.0 | 0.0 | 1500.0 | 744 |
3.80
|
Avocado | 64 g | 1.3 | 7.7 | 5.1 | 1.3 | 4.4 | 0.0 | 106 | ||
Heavy whipping cream | 85 mL | 21.6 | 12.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 117.0 | 306 | ||
Chopped pecans | 41 g | 2.7 | 26.6 | 5.9 | 4.4 | 4.3 | 0.0 | 305 | ||
Smart balance buttery spread | 43 g | 8.3 | 18.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 238 | ||
Pine nuts | 15 g | 1.4 | 16.6 | 6.0 | 3.0 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 198 | ||
Total
|
188.8
|
17
|
32.7
|
9.7
|
1617
|
1,897
| ||||
% Energy from food
|
90%
|
3%
|
7%
|
-
Phase 1: The subjects followed Diet A on the first five days (Day 1-5) of the week. Diet A included a fat:(carbohydrate + protein) ratio by mass of approximately 0.18 or 29% of energy from fat.
-
Phase 2: The subjects followed a randomized diet of Diet A, B, or C, with ratio of fat:(carbohydrate + protein) by mass of approximately 0.18, 1.63, or 3.80 (29%, 79%, or 90% of energy from fat), respectively on the sixth day (Day 6) of the week.
-
Phase 3: The subjects followed a fasting protocol where only non-caloric drinks were allowed on the 7th day (Day 7) of the week.
Measurement protocol
Baseline acetone levels
Acetone buildup levels
Breath ketone measurements
Other measurements
Statistical analysis
Results and discussions
Effect of diet on ketosis
Index
|
Final Acetone Buildup Concentration (ppmV)
|
Difference of Acetone Buildup Concentration (ppmV)
| ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diet A
|
Diet B
|
Diet C
|
∆
Diet B-Diet A
|
∆
Diet C-Diet A
|
∆
Diet B-Diet C
(%)
| |
Subject 1 | 2.40 | 4.84 | 2.62 | 2.44 (102%) | 0.22 (9%) | 2.22 (+85%) |
Subject 2 | 1.32 | 5.63 | 3.46 | 4.30 (327%) | 2.14 (162%) | 2.17 (+62%) |
Subject 3 | 1.37 | 6.33 | 2.33 | 4.97 (362%) | 0.97 (70%) | 4.00 (172%) |
Subject 4 | 0.94 | 7.13 | 2.60 | 6.19 (659%) | 1.66 (177%) | 4.53 (174%) |
Subject 5 | 1.85 | 10.24 | 4.63 | 8.39 (454%) | 2.78 (150%) | 5.61 (121%) |
Subject 6 | 2.22 | 22.49 | 5.15 | 20.27 (913%) | 2.93 (132%) | 17.35 (337%) |
Subject 7 | 2.43 | 39.18 | 21.24 | 36.75 (1512%) | 18.81 (774%) | 17.94 (84%) |
Subject 8 | 3.73 | 61.76 | 20.83 | 58.03 (1556%) | 17.10 (458%) | 40.93 (196%) |
Subject 9 | 5.27 | 9.81 | 35.93 | 4.54 (86%) | 30.66 (582%) | −26.12 (−72%) |
Subject 10 | 2.28 | 44.04 | 30.75 | 41.76 (1832%) | 28.47 (1249%) | 13.29 (43%) |
Subject 11 | 0.94 | 6.71 | 8.89 | 5.77 (614%) | 7.95 (846%) | −2.18 (−24%) |
Mean | 2.25 | 19.83 | 12.58 | 100% data show final acetone buildup concentration from Diet B > acetone buildup concentration from Diet A | 100% data show final acetone buildup concentration from Diet C > acetone buildup concentration from Diet A | 82% data show final acetone buildup concentration from Diet B > acetone buildup concentration from Diet C |
Standard Deviation | 1.29 | 19.65 | 12.40 | |||
ANOVA p value | <0.0058 | |||||
Fisher Test p value of Diet A and Diet B | 0.00159** | |||||
Fisher Test p value of Diet A and Diet C | 0.04435** | |||||
Fisher Test p value of Diet B and Diet C | 0.14797* |
-
Diet B vs. Diet A: 100% of individuals showed increase in acetone buildup concentration above 86% and up to 1800% when comparing Diet B with Diet A, using Diet A as reference (This is in line with Fisher LDS test).
-
Diet C vs. Diet A: 100% of the individuals showed increase in acetone buildup concentration above 9% and up to 1248% when comparing Diet C with Diet A, using Diet A as reference (This is in line with Fisher LDS test).
-
Diet B vs. Diet C: 82% of the individuals showed increase in acetone buildup concentration above 43% and up to 337% when comparing Diet B with Diet C, using Diet C as reference.
Ketone buildup capability
Reference
|
Conditioning Diet
|
Diet prior to acetone testing
|
Condition during testing
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Period | Composition | Period | Composition | Condition | Period | |
This work | Day 1-5 | fat:(carbohydrate + protein) by mass of 0.18 or the equivalence of 29% energy from fat | Day 6 | Diet B*: fat:(carbohydrate + protein) by mass of 1.63, or 78% energy from fat | Fasting since last meal | 22 hrs |
Ref. 37 | Single meal | liquid protein-energy meal**: Fat:carbohydrate + protein) by mass: 12 g/49 g; 0.24 | Fasting since last meal | 4-5 hrs | ||
Ref. 32 | Diet with 20 g carbohydrate/day*** | 8 hrs/day during 12 days |