Background
Mesenchymal stem cells—physical and functional profile
Immunological tolerance and mesenchymal stem cells
Inconsistency amongst the preclinical and clinical findings using MSCs
Organ transplanted | MSC source | MSC dosage | IS regime | Route of administration | Patients enrolled/ estimated enrolment | Trial phase | Status |
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Kidney | Autologous Bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs) | Doses for different groups 2 × 106 MSCs/kg, 48 h before Tx 2 × 106 MSCs/kg + 5 × 106 cell, 48 h before Tx 2 × 106 MSCs/kg at day 1, day 7 | Anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG), Prednisolone, Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), Calcineurin inhibitor (CNI), IVIG ATG Plasma exchange, IVIG, anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody | Intravenous (I.V.) or intra-arterial (I.A.) I.V.+ I.A. I.V. | 260 | 1 | Enrolling NCT number-NCT02490020 |
Liver | Umbilical cord Derived MSCs (UC-MSCs) | Multiple doses: 1 × 106 MSCs/kg body weight for 12 weeks (once per 4 weeks) | Not mentioned | I.V. | 50 | 1 | Unknown NCT number-NCT01690247 |
Kidney | Third party BM-MSCs | Four doses: 1 * 106/kg every week | Not mentioned | I.V. | 120 | 1/2 | Ongoing NCT number-NCT02563366 |
Kidney | Autologous, BM-MSCs | Single dose 2 × 106 MSCs/kg body wt given 1 day before Tx | MMF, Tacrolimus (TAC) CsA, Steroids | I.V. | 159 | 2 | Completed NCT number-NCT00658073 [62] |
Kidney | Autologous, BM-MSCs | Two doses: 1–2 × 106 MSCs/kg during Tx and day 7 post Tx | MMF, TAC or CsA, Prednisolone | I.V. | 15 | 1 | Completed NCT number-NCT00734396 [63] |
Kidney | Autologous, BM-MSCs | Single dose 2 × 106 MSCs/kg body wt given 1 day before transplantation (Tx) | ATG, MMF, Cyclosporine A (CsA), Steroids | I.V. | 4 | 1/2 | Terminated NCT number-NCT00752479 [69] |
Kidney | Allogeneic, BM-MSCs | Two doses: 1st dose of 1–2 × 106 cells/kg 1 day before Tx, 2nd dose- 1–2 × 106 cells 30 days after Tx | TAC, MMF, Prednisolone | I.V. | 15 | 1 | Active, not recruiting NCT number-NCT02409940 |
Kidney/liver | Allogeneic, BM-MSCs (Third party) | Single dose of 1.5–3 × 106 MSCs/kg at 3 (± 2) days after Tx | TAC, MMF, Steroids | Not mentioned | 40 | 1/2 | Unknown NCT number-NCT01429038 |
Kidney | Allogeneic, BM-MSCs (Third party) | 4 doses: 1 × 106 cells/kg during Tx and at day 7, 14, 21 post-Tx | Induction with basiliximab, Low dose of TAC, MMF, Steroids | I.V. | 120 | 1/2 | Not yet recruiting, NCT number-NCT02561767 |
Kidney | Autologous, stromal vascular fraction derived MSCs | 4 doses: 1 × 106 cells/kg during Tx and at day 7, 14, 21 post-Tx | Basiliximab induction | Not mentioned | 120 | 1/2 | Not yet recruiting, NCT number-NCT02492308 |
Liver | Allogeneic, BM-MSCs | Two doses: 1 × 106 MSCs/kg during Tx and day 2 (± 1) post-Tx | TAC, Basiliximab, Steroids | 1st dose: intraportal infusion, 2nd dose: I.V. | 7 | 1 (Pilot study) | Recruiting NCT number-NCT02957552 |
Kidney | Allogeneic, BM-MSCs | Two doses: First dose of 5 × 106 cells/kg during Tx, Second dose of 2 × 106 cells/kg 30 days after Tx | Cytoxan, Methylprednisolone (MEP), Low dose of TAC, MMF | 1st dose: renal allograft artery, 2nd dose: I.V. | 12 | Pilot study | Completed [64] |
Kidney | Allogeneic, BM-MSCs | Two doses: First dose of 5 × 106 cells/kg during Tx, second dose of 2 × 106 cells/kg 30 days after Tx | Cytoxan, MEP, Low dose of TAC, MMF | 1st dose: renal allograft artery, 2nd dose: I.V. | 32 | Pilot study | Completed [68] |
Kidney | Adipose-MSCs and BM-HSCs | 0.03 × 106 MSCs/kg + 8–10 × 108 HSCs per kg 5 days before Tx | ATG, Total lymphocyte irradiation, TAC, MEP | Portal infusion | 285 | 2 | [70] |
Microenvironmental cues influencing therapeutic efficacy of MSCs
Oxygen conditions
Cell source | Preconditioning | Experimental model | Factors affected | Implication | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Human BM-MSCs | Hypoxia | GvHD (mice) | Increase in stemness factors: Kruppel like factor 4 (KLF4), Octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (OCT4), v-myc avian myelocytomatosis viral oncogene Homolog (C-MYC), Increase in chemokine genes- CCL2, and CXCL10 | Enhanced chemotaxis, viability and homing | [90] |
Murine BM-MSCs | Hypoxia | Cellular cardiomyoplasty | Increase in anti-inflammatory cytokine expression as compared to pro-inflammatory cytokines | Improved cardiac function | [91] |
Human BM-MSCs | Hypoxia | Limb ischemia (murine) | Reduced NK cell cytotoxicity | Enhanced angiogenesis | [92] |
Rat BM-MSCs | Hypoxia | Diabetic cardiomyopathy (Rat) | Upregulation of Bcl-2/Bax ratio, Inhibited expression and Activation of caspase 3 | Anti-apoptotic Improved cardiac function | [93] |
Human BM-MSCs | IFN-γ | Induced colitis (mice) | Increase in levels of IDO, iNOS Decrease in T cell proliferation, Decrease in inflammatory markers: TNF-a, IL-6, IL-17A | Decrease in disease score and diminished the severity of colitis | [94] |
Murine BM-MSCs | IFN- γ | GvHD (murine) | GvHD mortality | Decrease in GvHD score after IFN- γ treatment at high concentrations | [95] |
Human Wharton jelly MSCs | IFN- γ | Autoimmune encephalomyelitis (mice) | Increase in immunosuppressive factors: TGF-β, VEGF, HGF and IL-10, IL-4, Increase in T regulatory cells, Decrease in inflammatory factors- IL 17A | Decrease in disease score | [96] |
Human BM-MSCs | IFN- γ | GvHD (Humanized mice) | T cell apoptosis and anergy | Reduced GvHD pathology and prolonged survival | [97] |
UC-MSCs | TLR3 (poly I:C) | Trinitrobenzene sulfonate (TNBS)-induced colitis model (murine) | Reduced production of Th1/17 signature cytokines: IFN-γ, IL-17A, IL-21, and IL-23, Increased IL-10 production in the colon, Increased localization of Treg in colon Decreased infiltration of pathogenic Th1/17 subsets; Enhanced migration of UC-MSCs to inflammatory Sites, PGE2 mediated inhibition of mononuclear cell Proliferation | Enhanced immunosuppressive protective effect of UC-MSCs on experimental colitis | [98] |
UC-MSCs | TLR3 (poly I:C) and TLR4 (LPS) priming | Dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis model (murine) | TLR3 priming: inhibited T cell proliferation, Higher expression of IDO, TLR4 priming: Higher expression of proinflammatory cytokines- IL-6 and IL-8 | Poly(I:C) primed UC-MSCs significantly ameliorated clinical and histopathological severity of DSS-induced colitis | [99] |
Murine BM-MSCs | TLR1/2 (Pam3CSK4), TLR2 (PGN), TLR3 (polyI:C), TLR4 (LPS), TLR5 (flagellin), TLR2/6 (FSL-1), TLR7/8 (R848), TLR9-ODN 1826 | Dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis model (murine) | TLR3 priming: increased IDO expression | Poly(I:C)-treated MSCs attenuated the pathologic severity of DSS-induced murine colitis | [100] |
Murine BM- MSCs | TLR3 (poly I:C) and TLR4 (LPS) priming | Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (murine) | TLR 3 priming: reduced proliferation of CD3+ T cells, reduced \differentiation/activation of proinflammatory lymphocytes, Th1 and Th17 TLR4 priming: Increased CD3+ T-cell proliferation, induced Th1 and Th17 cells, Increased levels of proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 | Pre-treatment of MSCs with poly(I:C) improved their therapeutic immunosuppressive abilities | [101] |