Background
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs): classification and mechanisms of action
Cancer-related mechanisms of lncRNA dysregulation
Mechanism | lncRNA | Effect on lncRNA expression | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Chromosomal deletion | DLEU1/2 | Downregulation | [23] |
Chromosomal amplification | PVT1 | Upregulation | [28] |
Polymorphisms in enhancer regions | HOTAIR | Upregulation | [29] |
CpG methylation | KIAA0495 | Downregulation | [32] |
CpG methylation | MEG3 | Downregulation | [34] |
p53 | lincRNA-p21 | Upregulation | [40] |
p53 | PINT | Upregulation | [41] |
p53 | H19 | Downregulation | [42] |
MYC | MYCLo1/2 | Upregulation | [46] |
MYC | PCAT1 | Upregulation | [50] |
MYC | H19 | Upregulation | [55] |
MYC | HOTAIR | Upregulation | [29] |
Notch1 | LUNAR | Upregulation | [58] |
Notch1 | NALT | Upregulation | [59] |
ER | DSCAM-AS1 | Upregulation | [63] |
ER | NEAT1 | Upregulation | [64] |
Genomic alterations
Epigenetic alterations
P53-dependent regulation
MYC-dependent regulation
Notch-1-dependent regulation
ER-mediated regulation
MALAT1 expression and regulation
MALAT1 molecular functions
Alternative splicing
Transcriptional regulation
ceRNA function
Strategies for MALAT1 therapeutic targeting in cancer
MALAT1 role in cancer
Tumor type | Associated clinical features of high MALAT1 tumors | MALAT1 molecular target(s) | Phenotypic effects induced by MALAT1 inhibition in preclinical models | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Non-small cell lung cancer | ↓ survival of stage I NSCLC patients; ↓ overall survival; ↑ metastasis; ↑ in peripheral blood of NSCLC; ↑ in advanced tumor stages and in lymph-node metastasis | AIM1, LAYN, HMMR, SLC26A2, CCT4, ROD1, CTHRC1,FHL1, CXCL5 | ↓ migration and invasion in vitro; ↓ tumor growth in vivo; reduction or suppression of metastasis | |
Breast cancer | MALAT1-positive association with estrogen and progesterone receptors’ expression; ↓ recurrence-free survival in ER-negative patients | CD133, HuR; VEGF-A | ↓ tumor growth and differentiation into cystic tumors; metastasis reduction; ↓ branching morphogenesis; ↑cell adhesion; ↓ migration | |
Hepatocellular carcinoma | ↑ risk of HCC recurrence after liver transplantation; ↑ in sera of arsenite-exposed people and of HCC patients; ↑ in III-IV TNM stages; ↓ overall survival of HCC patients | TRF2; p53; HIF2α | ↓ in vitro and in vivo tumor growth | |
Ovarian cancer | Correlation with FIGO stages; ↑ in peripheral blood correlating with distant metastasis | Matrix metalloproteinases; miR-506 | ↓cell proliferation, migration and invasion; G0/G1 cell cycle arrest; ↑ of apoptosis | |
Cervical cancer | ↑ lymph-node metastasis; ↓ overall survival | Vimentin, β-catenin and E-cadherin | ↓cell viability and proliferation in vitro and in vivo; ↓ migration and invasion | |
Esophageal cancer | ↓ survival of patients undergoing radical resection of middle thoracic ESCC; positive correlation with pT stage and negative correlation with disease-free and overall survival; ↑ lymph nodes metastasis; ↓ disease-free survival | β-catenin; Lin28; EMT/stemness-related genes (OCT4, E-cadherin) | ↓in vitro cell growth; ↓colony formation ability, migratory and invasive capabilities; G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and ↑ of apoptosis; ↓ tumor sphere formation; ↓ tumor formation in vivo | |
Renal cell carcinoma | ↓ overall survival | Twist, E-cadherin, EZH2, miR-200, ZEB2 | ↓cell proliferation and invasion | |
Prostate cancer | ↑ of PSA-positive biopsies; ↑ in bone marrow of CRPC patients | Estrogen receptors (ERα/ERβ); EZH2 | ↓invasion and migration in vitro and in vivo | |
Osteoarcoma and Ewing sarcoma | ↑ in serum correlating with worse overall survival; ↑ in tissues correlating with distant metastasis | E-cadherin, HMGB1; SYK-target genes | ↓cell proliferation and migration, cell cycle arrest, ↑ apoptosis, both in vitro and in vivo | [79] |
Bladder cancer | ↑ metastasis | EMT genes (E-cadherin, N-cadherin) | ↓ cell migration and metastasis | |
Brain cancer | Positive association with III-IV WHO grades and tumor size; ↑ MALAT1 in temozolomide-resistant patients; ↓ overall survival | miR-155; FBXW7; ERK/MAPK pathway; MMP2; thymidylate synthase | ↓ tumor growth, migration and invasiveness in vitro; in vivo ↓ inhibition of tumor growth in vivo; restoration of temozolomide sensitivity; eradication of GBM stem cells | |
Endometroid endometrial carcinoma | Association with FIGO stages | PCDH10-Wnt/β-catenin; miR200c | ↓ cell proliferation, migration and invasion | |
Gastric cancer | ↑ peritoneal metastasis; ↑ distant metastasis; ↓ overall survival of stage III and IV patients | miR-122/IGF-1R axis; PCDH10; miR-23b | ↓ cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, migration and invasion; ↑ apoptosis; abrogation of chemoresistance | |
Colorectal cancer | ↑ lymph-node metastases; ↓ overall survival | PRKA kinase anchor protein 9 (AKAP-9); CCL5; E-cadherin | Abrogation of EMT; reversion of oxaliplatin resistance | |
Pancreatic cancer | ↑ overall survival; ↓ progression-free survival of patients undergoing gemcitabine-based chemotherapy as first-line treatment for locally advanced or advanced disease | Hippo-YAP1 pathway; P62, LAMP-2 | ↓ cell proliferation and migration, ↑ of apoptosis, in vitro and in xenograft murine models in vivo | |
Multiple myeloma | ↑ MGUS, SMM, MM, and PCL; ↓ circulating MALAT1 in MM patients; ↑ MALAT1 in bone marrow mononuclear cells from MM patients | LTBP3; SP1; NRF1-NRF2/Keap1 pathway; proteasome-associated genes; miR-29b | ↓ of in vitro and in vivo tumor growth and induction of apoptosis; ↓ clonogenicity; ↑ sensitivity to bortezomib | |
Mantle cell lymphoma | ↓ overall survival | p21 and p27 cell cycle inhibitors | ↓ of cell proliferation, ↑ sensitivity to apoptosis; cell cycle arrest at G1/S transition | [192] |
T cell lymphoma | ↓ overall survival | PRC2 components | – | [193] |