8 - Male Violence against Women in Botswana: A Discussion of Gendered Uncertainties in a Rapidly Changing Environment
Corresponding Author(s) : Godisang Mookodi
African Sociological Review,
Vol. 8 No. 1 (2004): African Sociological Review
Abstract
Male violence against women has become commonplace in contemporary Botswana. Analyses ofgender-based violence in Botswana indicate that men are acting out their dominance through acts of violence. This dominance is created and reinforced by patriarchal belieJ:s and practices. The discussions are characterised by notions offemale victimhood and universal male dominance. This paper contextualises male violence against women by examining the role played by economic and social change in the shaping ofgender identities and relations. !show that white contemporary jàrms a/male dominance have resulted /rom their privi-leged access over time to resources such as wages and property, men also face uncertainties of' unemployment and reduced social status. l also show that rather than assuming the role of passive victims, women have developed, and continue to develop, contradictory survival strategies such as cohabitation and sexual relations that not only reinfàrce notions of male dominance but sometimes also challenge power relations and render some men victims.
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- Alexander, E. 2001. ‘The Case of Women in Politics in Botswana’, in S. Kaye, L. Machacha, and T. Maundeni, (eds.), Gender: Opportunities and Challenges: 1ˢᵗ National Conference of the Gender Policy and Programme Committee, Proceedings from a conference at the University of Botswana, 22-24 October 2001, Gaborone: University of Botswana, pp. 79-84.
- Alverson, H. 1978. Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa, London, Yale University Press.
- Bhebhe, B., and A. C. Mosha. 1997. ‘The Concept of Women Remaining Single and Its Economic Consequences: A Case Study, Gaborone City’, Unpublished paper, the University of Botswana Library.
- Botswana Daily News, 2003, ‘UB Students Identified’, 14 February, p. 2.
- Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis (BIDPA). 1997a. Study of Poverty and Poverty Alleviation in Botswana, Vol. 1, Overall Assessment of Poverty, Gaborone, BIDPA. Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis (BIDPA). 1997b. Study of Poverty and Poverty Alleviation in Booverty Using the Poverty DatumLine, Gaborone, BIDPA.
- Botswana Police Service. 1999. Report of a Study on Rape in Botswana, Gaborone, Government Printer.
- Cleaver, F. 1982. ‘Do Men Matter? New Horizons in Gender and Development’, IDS21 Insights, issue no. 35.
- Colcough, C., and S. McCarthy. 1980. The Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of Growth and Distribution, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
- Comaroff, J. L., and S. Roberts. 1977. ‘Marriage and Extra-Marital Sexuality: The Dialectics of Legal Change Among the Kgatla’, Journal of African Law, vol. 21, no. 1.
- Cornwall, A., and S. C.White. 2000. ‘Men, Masculinities and Development: Politics, Policies and Practice’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 1-6.
- Driel, F.. 1994. Poor and Powerful: Female-Headed Households and Unmarried Motherhood in Botswana, Saarbrucken, Verlag für Entwicklungspolitik Breitenbach GmbH.
- Emang Basadi-NGO Network on Women’s Rights and Women in Law and Development in Africa (WILDAF). 1995.
- ‘Rape and Femicide in Botswana: A Report on the Proceedings of the National Workshop on Violence against Women’, Gaborone, 3-4 March 1995.
- Green, D. 1999. Gender Violence in Africa: African Women’ Responses, New York, St. Martin’s Press.
- Greig, A., M. Kimmel, and J. Lang. 2000. Men, Masculinities and Development: Broadening Our Work towards Gender Equality, Gender in Development Monograph Series 10, New York, UNDP.
- Gulbrandsen, Ø. 1986. ‘To Marry or Not to Marry: Marital Strategies and Sexual Relations in a Tswana Society’, Ethnos, vol. 51, nos 1-2, pp. 7-28.
- Gulbrandsen, Ø.. 1996. Poverty in the Midst of Plenty: Socio-Economic Marginalization, Ecological Deterioration and Political Stability in Tswana Society, Bergen, Norse Publications. Hermans, J.,
- and D. Nteta. 1992. ‘Men’s Attitudes towards Women in Botswana - Phase One: Literature Review’, Unpublished paper, University of Botswana Library.
- Ingstad, B., and S. Saugestad. 1987. ‘Unmarried Mothers in Changing Tswana Society: Implications for Household Form and Viability’, Forum for Utviklingsstudier, no. 4, Oslo, Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt.
- Larsson, A. 1989. Women Householders and Housing Strategies: The Case of Gaborone, Botswana, Stockholm, The National Swedish Institute For Building Research.
- Lentswe La Basadi (NGO). 2001. Unearthing Her Story: Stories By Women, Gaborone, Lentswe La Lesedi.
- Mannathoko, C. 1992. ‘Feminist Theories and the Study of Gender Issues in Southern Africa’, in R. Meena, (ed.), Gender in Southern Africa: Conceptual and Theoretical Considerations, Harare, Southern Africa Political Economy Trust, pp. 71-91.
- Mathoma, A. 2001. ‘Combating Domestic Violence: Essential for Women’s Survival in the 21ˢᵗ Century’, in S. Kaye, L. Machacha, and T. Maundeni, (eds.), Gender: Opportunities and Challenges: 1ˢᵗ National Conference of the Gender Policy and Programme Committee, University of Botswana, 22-24 October 2001, Gaborone, University of Botswana, pp. 117-123. Maundeni, T. 2001. ‘Images of Females and Males in Setswana Language: How Females Are Disadvantaged’, in S. Kaye, L. Machacha, and T.
- Maundeni, (eds.), Gender: Opportunities and Challenges: 1ˢᵗ National Conference of the Gender Policy and Programme Committee, University of Botswana, 22-24 October 2001, Gaborone, University of Botswana, pp. 37-48.
- Metlhaetsile Women’s Information Centre. n.d. Domestic Violence: It’s a Crime!, Gaborone, Lentswe La Lesedi.
- Mogwe, A. 1988. ‘A Go Itewa Ke Monna wa Gago ke Botshelo? A Preliminary Investigation into Battered Women in Botswana’, M.Phil. Dissertation, Cape Town, University of Cape Town. Molenaar, M. 1980.
- ‘Social Change within a Traditional Pattern: A Case Study of a Tswana Ward’, Unpublished article, University of Botswana Library.
- Molokomme, A. 1991. ‘Children of the Fence: Maintenance of Extra-Marital Children Under Law and Practice in Botswana’, PhD Thesis, University of Leiden.
- Mookodi, G. 1999. ’We Are Struggling: Gender Dynamics of Survival in Low Income Households in Botswana’, PhD Thesis, Department of Sociology, University of Toronto. Mookodi, G. 2001. ‘The
- Complexities of Female Household Headship in Botswana’, Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies (published at the University of Botswana), vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 148-164.
- Mookodi, G. 2003a. ‘Household Perspectives of Women and Men in Botswana’, Seminar, Gaborone, Botswana, September 8-11, 2003.
- Mookodi, G. 2003b. ‘Marriage and Nuptiality in Botswana’, Paper presented at the 2001 Population and Housing Census Dissemination Seminar, September 8-11, 2003.
- Mookodi, G. and D. Fuh. 2004. ‘Finding the “Missing” Male in Gender Discourses in Botswana’, Special issue, ‘Critical Social Challenge’, Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 18, no. 1 (in press).
- Morrell, Robert. (ed.) 2001. Changing Men in Southern Africa, Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, and London, New York, Zed Books.
- Motts, N. 1994. ‘A Case Study of the Social and Political Economic Determinants of Female Headed Household Poverty in Kang, Botswana’, Master of Science (MS) Thesis, University of Guelph.
- National Aids Coordinating Agency. 2003. Botswana 2003 Second Generation HIV/AIDS Surveillance, Gaborone, Ministry of the State President.
- Nyamnjoh, F. 2001. ‘Concluding Reflections Beyond Identities: Rethinking Power and Africa’, Paper presented at the University of Botswana, Department of Sociology Seminar Series.
- Pattman, R. 2001. ‘Ugandans, Catmen, Sackmen and Others: Student Masculinities at the University of Botswana’, in S. Kaye, L. Machacha, and T. Maundeni, (eds.), Gender: Opportunities and Challenges: 1ˢᵗ National Conference of the Gender Policy and Programme Committee, University of Botswana, 22-24 October 2001, Gaborone, University of Botswana. pp. 106-116.
- Raditlhokwa, L. 2003. ‘Open Letter to President Mogae: The Plight of the Distressed Man’, The Botswana Gazette, 22 October.
- Ratele K. 2001. ‘Between “Ouens”: Everyday Makings of Black Masculinity’, in R. Morrell, (ed.), Changing Men in Southern Africa, Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, and London, New York, Zed Books. pp. 239-254.
- Schapera, I. 1933. ‘Pre-Marital Pregnancy and Native Opinion: A Note on Social Change’, Africa, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 59-89.
- Schapera, I. 1966. Married Life in an African Tribe, Evanston, North Western University Press.
- Schapera, I., and J. L. Comaroff. 1991. (revised edition.), The Tswana, London, Kegan Paul International.
- Siphambe, H. 2003. ‘Economic Activity and Labour Force’, Paper presented at the 2001 Population and Housing Census Dissemination Seminar in Gaborone, September 8-11, 2003. Summers, R. W., and A. M.
- Hoffman. (eds.) 2002. Domestic Violence: A Global View, Westport, Greenwood Press. Syson, L. 1972. ‘Unmarried Mothers in Botswana’, Botswana Notes and Records, vol. 5, pp. 41-51.
- Tlou, T. and A. Campbell. 1982. History of Botswana, Gaborone, MacMillan Botswana. Townsend, N. 1997. ‘Men, Migration, and Households in Botswana: An Exploration of Connections over Time and Space’, Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 405- 420.
- Vieritis, L. M., and M. R. Williams. 2002. ‘Assessing the Impact of Gender Inequality on Female Homicide and Victimization across U.S. Cities’, Violence against Women: An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 35-63.
- Walby, S. 1986. Patriarchy at Work: Patriarchal and Capitalist Relations in Employment, Cambridge, Polity Press.
- Watts, C., S. Osam, and E. Win. (eds.) 1995. The Private Is Public: A Study of Violence against Women in Southern Africa, Harare, Women in Law in Development in Africa.
- Whitehead, S. 2002. Men and Masculinities, Cambridge, Polity Press.
- Women and Law in Southern Africa (WLSA). 1997. Botswana’s Families and Women’s Rights in a Changing Environment, Gaborone, Women and Law in Southern Africa Research Trust, Botswana.
- Women and Law In Southern Africa (WLSA). 1999. Chasing the Mirage: Women and the Administration of Justice, Gaborone, Women and Law in Southern Africa Research Trust, Botswana.
- Women’s Affairs Department. 1999. Report on the Study on the Socio- lications of Violence against Women in Botswana, Gaborone, Government Printer.
References
Alexander, E. 2001. ‘The Case of Women in Politics in Botswana’, in S. Kaye, L. Machacha, and T. Maundeni, (eds.), Gender: Opportunities and Challenges: 1ˢᵗ National Conference of the Gender Policy and Programme Committee, Proceedings from a conference at the University of Botswana, 22-24 October 2001, Gaborone: University of Botswana, pp. 79-84.
Alverson, H. 1978. Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa, London, Yale University Press.
Bhebhe, B., and A. C. Mosha. 1997. ‘The Concept of Women Remaining Single and Its Economic Consequences: A Case Study, Gaborone City’, Unpublished paper, the University of Botswana Library.
Botswana Daily News, 2003, ‘UB Students Identified’, 14 February, p. 2.
Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis (BIDPA). 1997a. Study of Poverty and Poverty Alleviation in Botswana, Vol. 1, Overall Assessment of Poverty, Gaborone, BIDPA. Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis (BIDPA). 1997b. Study of Poverty and Poverty Alleviation in Booverty Using the Poverty DatumLine, Gaborone, BIDPA.
Botswana Police Service. 1999. Report of a Study on Rape in Botswana, Gaborone, Government Printer.
Cleaver, F. 1982. ‘Do Men Matter? New Horizons in Gender and Development’, IDS21 Insights, issue no. 35.
Colcough, C., and S. McCarthy. 1980. The Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of Growth and Distribution, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Comaroff, J. L., and S. Roberts. 1977. ‘Marriage and Extra-Marital Sexuality: The Dialectics of Legal Change Among the Kgatla’, Journal of African Law, vol. 21, no. 1.
Cornwall, A., and S. C.White. 2000. ‘Men, Masculinities and Development: Politics, Policies and Practice’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 1-6.
Driel, F.. 1994. Poor and Powerful: Female-Headed Households and Unmarried Motherhood in Botswana, Saarbrucken, Verlag für Entwicklungspolitik Breitenbach GmbH.
Emang Basadi-NGO Network on Women’s Rights and Women in Law and Development in Africa (WILDAF). 1995.
‘Rape and Femicide in Botswana: A Report on the Proceedings of the National Workshop on Violence against Women’, Gaborone, 3-4 March 1995.
Green, D. 1999. Gender Violence in Africa: African Women’ Responses, New York, St. Martin’s Press.
Greig, A., M. Kimmel, and J. Lang. 2000. Men, Masculinities and Development: Broadening Our Work towards Gender Equality, Gender in Development Monograph Series 10, New York, UNDP.
Gulbrandsen, Ø. 1986. ‘To Marry or Not to Marry: Marital Strategies and Sexual Relations in a Tswana Society’, Ethnos, vol. 51, nos 1-2, pp. 7-28.
Gulbrandsen, Ø.. 1996. Poverty in the Midst of Plenty: Socio-Economic Marginalization, Ecological Deterioration and Political Stability in Tswana Society, Bergen, Norse Publications. Hermans, J.,
and D. Nteta. 1992. ‘Men’s Attitudes towards Women in Botswana - Phase One: Literature Review’, Unpublished paper, University of Botswana Library.
Ingstad, B., and S. Saugestad. 1987. ‘Unmarried Mothers in Changing Tswana Society: Implications for Household Form and Viability’, Forum for Utviklingsstudier, no. 4, Oslo, Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt.
Larsson, A. 1989. Women Householders and Housing Strategies: The Case of Gaborone, Botswana, Stockholm, The National Swedish Institute For Building Research.
Lentswe La Basadi (NGO). 2001. Unearthing Her Story: Stories By Women, Gaborone, Lentswe La Lesedi.
Mannathoko, C. 1992. ‘Feminist Theories and the Study of Gender Issues in Southern Africa’, in R. Meena, (ed.), Gender in Southern Africa: Conceptual and Theoretical Considerations, Harare, Southern Africa Political Economy Trust, pp. 71-91.
Mathoma, A. 2001. ‘Combating Domestic Violence: Essential for Women’s Survival in the 21ˢᵗ Century’, in S. Kaye, L. Machacha, and T. Maundeni, (eds.), Gender: Opportunities and Challenges: 1ˢᵗ National Conference of the Gender Policy and Programme Committee, University of Botswana, 22-24 October 2001, Gaborone, University of Botswana, pp. 117-123. Maundeni, T. 2001. ‘Images of Females and Males in Setswana Language: How Females Are Disadvantaged’, in S. Kaye, L. Machacha, and T.
Maundeni, (eds.), Gender: Opportunities and Challenges: 1ˢᵗ National Conference of the Gender Policy and Programme Committee, University of Botswana, 22-24 October 2001, Gaborone, University of Botswana, pp. 37-48.
Metlhaetsile Women’s Information Centre. n.d. Domestic Violence: It’s a Crime!, Gaborone, Lentswe La Lesedi.
Mogwe, A. 1988. ‘A Go Itewa Ke Monna wa Gago ke Botshelo? A Preliminary Investigation into Battered Women in Botswana’, M.Phil. Dissertation, Cape Town, University of Cape Town. Molenaar, M. 1980.
‘Social Change within a Traditional Pattern: A Case Study of a Tswana Ward’, Unpublished article, University of Botswana Library.
Molokomme, A. 1991. ‘Children of the Fence: Maintenance of Extra-Marital Children Under Law and Practice in Botswana’, PhD Thesis, University of Leiden.
Mookodi, G. 1999. ’We Are Struggling: Gender Dynamics of Survival in Low Income Households in Botswana’, PhD Thesis, Department of Sociology, University of Toronto. Mookodi, G. 2001. ‘The
Complexities of Female Household Headship in Botswana’, Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies (published at the University of Botswana), vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 148-164.
Mookodi, G. 2003a. ‘Household Perspectives of Women and Men in Botswana’, Seminar, Gaborone, Botswana, September 8-11, 2003.
Mookodi, G. 2003b. ‘Marriage and Nuptiality in Botswana’, Paper presented at the 2001 Population and Housing Census Dissemination Seminar, September 8-11, 2003.
Mookodi, G. and D. Fuh. 2004. ‘Finding the “Missing” Male in Gender Discourses in Botswana’, Special issue, ‘Critical Social Challenge’, Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 18, no. 1 (in press).
Morrell, Robert. (ed.) 2001. Changing Men in Southern Africa, Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, and London, New York, Zed Books.
Motts, N. 1994. ‘A Case Study of the Social and Political Economic Determinants of Female Headed Household Poverty in Kang, Botswana’, Master of Science (MS) Thesis, University of Guelph.
National Aids Coordinating Agency. 2003. Botswana 2003 Second Generation HIV/AIDS Surveillance, Gaborone, Ministry of the State President.
Nyamnjoh, F. 2001. ‘Concluding Reflections Beyond Identities: Rethinking Power and Africa’, Paper presented at the University of Botswana, Department of Sociology Seminar Series.
Pattman, R. 2001. ‘Ugandans, Catmen, Sackmen and Others: Student Masculinities at the University of Botswana’, in S. Kaye, L. Machacha, and T. Maundeni, (eds.), Gender: Opportunities and Challenges: 1ˢᵗ National Conference of the Gender Policy and Programme Committee, University of Botswana, 22-24 October 2001, Gaborone, University of Botswana. pp. 106-116.
Raditlhokwa, L. 2003. ‘Open Letter to President Mogae: The Plight of the Distressed Man’, The Botswana Gazette, 22 October.
Ratele K. 2001. ‘Between “Ouens”: Everyday Makings of Black Masculinity’, in R. Morrell, (ed.), Changing Men in Southern Africa, Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, and London, New York, Zed Books. pp. 239-254.
Schapera, I. 1933. ‘Pre-Marital Pregnancy and Native Opinion: A Note on Social Change’, Africa, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 59-89.
Schapera, I. 1966. Married Life in an African Tribe, Evanston, North Western University Press.
Schapera, I., and J. L. Comaroff. 1991. (revised edition.), The Tswana, London, Kegan Paul International.
Siphambe, H. 2003. ‘Economic Activity and Labour Force’, Paper presented at the 2001 Population and Housing Census Dissemination Seminar in Gaborone, September 8-11, 2003. Summers, R. W., and A. M.
Hoffman. (eds.) 2002. Domestic Violence: A Global View, Westport, Greenwood Press. Syson, L. 1972. ‘Unmarried Mothers in Botswana’, Botswana Notes and Records, vol. 5, pp. 41-51.
Tlou, T. and A. Campbell. 1982. History of Botswana, Gaborone, MacMillan Botswana. Townsend, N. 1997. ‘Men, Migration, and Households in Botswana: An Exploration of Connections over Time and Space’, Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 405- 420.
Vieritis, L. M., and M. R. Williams. 2002. ‘Assessing the Impact of Gender Inequality on Female Homicide and Victimization across U.S. Cities’, Violence against Women: An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 35-63.
Walby, S. 1986. Patriarchy at Work: Patriarchal and Capitalist Relations in Employment, Cambridge, Polity Press.
Watts, C., S. Osam, and E. Win. (eds.) 1995. The Private Is Public: A Study of Violence against Women in Southern Africa, Harare, Women in Law in Development in Africa.
Whitehead, S. 2002. Men and Masculinities, Cambridge, Polity Press.
Women and Law in Southern Africa (WLSA). 1997. Botswana’s Families and Women’s Rights in a Changing Environment, Gaborone, Women and Law in Southern Africa Research Trust, Botswana.
Women and Law In Southern Africa (WLSA). 1999. Chasing the Mirage: Women and the Administration of Justice, Gaborone, Women and Law in Southern Africa Research Trust, Botswana.
Women’s Affairs Department. 1999. Report on the Study on the Socio- lications of Violence against Women in Botswana, Gaborone, Government Printer.