FDA market approval processes
To be able to notice deficiencies, it is necessary to briefly introduce the conventional FDA processes that lead to market approval of a spinal implant.
The FDA oversees medical devices and is responsible for the protection and promotion of public health by regulating the marketing of devices such that only those with demonstrated reasonable assurance of safety and effectiveness are marketed [
10]. Medical devices are categorized into three Classes. Class I devices are deemed to be low risk and are subject to the least regulatory controls. Class II devices are higher risk devices than Class I and require stricter regulatory controls to provide reasonable assurance of the device’s safety and effectiveness. Class III devices are the highest risk devices and are subject to the highest level of regulatory control, because they pose a significant risk of illness or injury to a patient. Here, we focus on class II and III devices, since nearly all spinal implants fall under these regulations [
10].
A Class II device, typically requiring 510(k) clearance, cannot be commercially distributed until the FDA acknowledges that the device is ‘substantially equivalent’ to a previously approved device. A 510(k) pathway is by far the most common track for market entry [
11]. For a 510(k), the FDA often relies upon well-designed bench and/or animal testing rather than clinical studies, unless there is a specific rationale for requesting clinical information to support a determination of substantial equivalence. However, the FDA may recommend a supporting clinical study if there are new indications for use.
Class III devices require premarket approval (PMA). The PMA process is more extensive and complicated and includes the submission of clinical data to support claims made for the device. A PMA will only be granted on the basis of substantial pre-clinical and clinical data from research conducted under an investigational device exemption [
12]. This allows the investigational device to be used in a clinical study to collect the necessary safety and effectiveness data. The clinical studies submitted to support PMA applications should be designed and conducted in a manner that provides valid scientific evidence. When developing a trial to demonstrate safety and effectiveness for spinal systems, FDA recommends a multi-center, randomized controlled trial. There are no specific requirements for types of control groups, but guidance is often provided to sponsoring companies. The FDA recommends a 5- to 10-year follow-up period (
http://www.fda.gov).
Finally, a device will be recommended for approval by an FDA advisory panel if the panel judges that benefits outweigh the risks. The panel also holds the right to demand additional data, before recommending approval. The FDA might decide to grant approval of a device with a requirement for additional post-approval study. In practice, only a limited number of companies are enforced to present post-market study requirements. The FDA also has the legal right to perform post-market surveillance and to recall medical devices if they are judged to jeopardize patient safety. Although these regulatory mechanisms seem sound, still, medical devices granted with a 510(k) or PMA that are distributed to the market may sometimes fail within years.
The X-Stop®
According to the FDA, the X-Stop® is designed to limit extension of the spine in the affected area, which may relieve the symptoms of lumbar spinal stenosis. Compared to the surgical standard, the X-Stop® claims to be less invasive, thereby reducing surgical trauma. The first FDA filing date of the X-Stop® was on the 6th of January 2004. Before final approval, the initial protocol was amended on April 1st, May 20th, August 2nd and December 27th, 2004, and on June 22nd and November 14th, 2005. The X-Stop® was finally granted approval with a PMA for clinical use on the 21st of November 2005.
A total of 167 publications were identified for the X-Stop
®. Prior to its PMA, only five studies on the X-Stop
® were published. These included a prospective randomized multi-center study (191 patients) [
13], a study on preliminary experiences in ten patients only [
14] and three in vitro studies [
15‐
17]. Up to now a total of ten RCTs [
13,
18‐
25] and three cost-effectiveness studies [
26‐
28] were published.
The first study by Zucherman et al. was a multi-center RCT in which the X-Stop
® (100 patients) was compared with non-operative treatment (91 patients) for lumbar spinal stenosis [
13,
21]. The authors concluded that the X-Stop
® offers a significant improvement in The Zurich Claudication Questionnaire over non-operative treatment after 1-year and 2-year follow-up [
13,
21] and in improving quality of life [
20]. Furthermore, the authors stated that, at 1-year and 2-year follow-up, results were similar to published reports on decompressive laminectomy, with considerably lower morbidity [
13,
21]. However, the X-Stop
® was only compared with non-operative treatment in this trial and the conclusion regarding similarity to decompressive surgery was not supported by a direct comparison with the current surgical standard.
Anderson et al. concluded in a small RCT (42 patients) that the X-Stop
® was more effective after 2-year follow-up than non-operative treatment (33 patients) for the management of symptoms secondary to degenerative lumbar spondylolisthesis [
19]. An RCT by Miller et al. compared the X-Stop
® (86 patients) with a novel interspinous technique, the Superion
® (80 patients) (Vertiflex Inc., San Clemente, CA, USA) [
18]. This new technique was found to be similar to the X-Stop
® for treating lumbar stenosis. Again, no comparison with the current surgical standard was provided. Finally, the most recent RCT by Stromquist et al. reported no statistically significant difference between decompressive surgery (50 patients) and implantation of the X-Stop
® (50 patients) after 2-year follow-up [
22]. However, they found a significantly higher re-operation rate compared to non-instrumented surgery, as was, among others, also reported by Verhoof in 2008 [
29] and Deyo in 2013 [
30].
Patel et al. published two separate RCTs [
23,
24]. In 2014 the X-Stop
®, being a FDA-approved interspinous spacer, was used as a control for the Superion
® device. The authors included 250 patients at baseline. Finally, after 2 years 192 patients (77 %) were analyzed. In 2015, a similar comparison was made. However, the number of included patients was substantially larger (
N = 391). The latter study was part of an FDA Investigational Device Exemption (IDE) pivotal trial. In both trials, The Zurich Claudication Questionnaire scores significantly improved for both types of surgical care compared to conservative care. The rates of complications and reoperations were similar between groups.
Lønne et al. published the most recent RCT regarding the X-Stop
® in the beginning of 2015 [
25]. The investigators compared the X-Stop
® with minimally invasive decompression. The study was terminated after a midway interim analysis because of significantly higher reoperation rate in the X-Stop group (33 %). Besides Stromquist’s RCT, the trial by Lønne is the only one that compared the X-Stop
® with a form of standard surgical care.
Three studies were identified evaluating the cost-effectiveness of the X-Stop
®. Skidmore et al. focused primarily on cost-effectiveness alongside a RCT (sponsored by Medtronic Inc.) comparing the X-Stop
® with conservative care and laminectomy [
27]. The authors used clinical outcomes, quality-of-life and economic data. They found that the X-Stop
® yielded favorable cost-effectiveness ratios over both conservative care and decompressive laminectomy. However, the economic evaluation was based on a small study sample and the authors did not report the uncertainty of their incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. In contrast, Burnett et al. compared similar treatment options in a review study and found that laminectomy appears to be the most cost-effective treatment strategy for patients with symptomatic lumbar spinal stenosis [
26]. Finally, Lønne et al. [
28] found that there was a 50 % likelihood that X-Stop is cost-effective over minimally invasive decompression. The significantly higher cost of X-Stop
® was ascribed to implant cost and significantly higher reoperation rates. However, as stated above the study was terminated after a midway interim analysis because of significantly higher reoperation rate in the X-Stop group (33 %).
Deficiencies in the approval process of the X-Stop®
Zucherman et al. compared implantation of the X-Stop
® with conservative treatment [
13,
21]. Based on this study the FDA granted approval to the X-Stop
® with a PMA. Such a decision can be considered incomplete, since the X-Stop
® was not compared with standard decompressive surgery. Superiority of conventional decompressive surgery over non-operative care was previously established in many studies [
31]. Therefore, it would be erroneous to infer that X-Stop
® is equivalent to decompressive surgery, that is not what could be concluded on the basis of the original study by Zucherman et al. [
13,
21]. Basically, it might be argued whether the scientific basis provided enough justification to build a PMA upon.
After PMA approval, nine additional RCTs were published comparing the X-Stop
® with alternatively decompressive surgery, other instruments and non-operative treatment strategies [
13,
18‐
25]. The RCTs of Stromquist’s and Lønne were the only studies that compared the X-Stop
® with decompressive surgery, the standard surgical procedure. As stated, no statistically significant difference between decompressive surgery and implantation of the X-Stop
® was found on clinical outcomes, but the X-Stop
® showed a significantly higher re-operation rate compared to non-instrumented surgery [
22,
25]. Interestingly enough, in some studies the X-Stop
® was even used as a control as part of a FDA-IDE study [
23,
24].
In addition, it was striking that up to 2012 all RCTs, with exception of the trial by Anderson [
19] came from the same research group. Furthermore, one or more of the author(s) received benefits for personal or professional use from a commercial party related directly or indirectly to the subject of the study: e.g., royalties, stocks, stock options, decision-making position [
21]. It is well known that industry-sponsored research is generally more favorable over independent research [
32].
Finally, the approval was contingent upon post-approval follow-up data submission for safety and efficacy at 2 and 5 years. The Condition of Approval Study (COAST), a prospective Phase IV 5-year post-approval study of the X-Stop
® device was completed in 2012, but these results have not been published. Currently, the X-Stop
® is still PMA approved although post-market surveillance and post-market studies have clearly contradicted the findings of the first study by Zucherman et al. and recommendations seem unfavorable due to a lack of long-term follow-up, regarding efficacy and adverse effects.
1 On the other hand, none of the studies cited actually contradict the finding that the X-Stop
® produced greater symptom relief than conservative care. It could still be argued that the X-Stop
® may have a role in elderly high-risk patients for whom symptom relief is sought and decompression surgery could be seen as risky intervention. For this population, long-term results may also have a different type of importance. It may be a situation where patients need to be well informed about multiple treatment options, and engaged in the decision-making. However, as stated the FDA may recommend a supporting clinical study if there are new indications for use, this has not been executed for this possible new indication and corresponding target-population of the X-Stop
®.
The Dynesys®
The FDA indicates that the Dynesys
® (Zimmer Inc., Warsaw, IN, USA) is intended to provide immobilization and stabilization of spinal segments as an adjunct to fusion in the treatment of and following acute and chronic instabilities or deformities and failed previous fusion. The claimed advantage of the Dynesys
® is its motion preservation capacity and its ability to prevent adjacent segment degeneration [
33]. Because fusion is not the end-point, no bone grafts are used, offering less invasive surgery and less surgical trauma. In March 2004, the Dynesys
® received a 510(k) market approval, since it was considered to be ‘substantially equivalent’ to the Silhouette
® spinal fixation system (also Zimmer Inc., Warsaw, IN, USA). The Dynesys
® as a stand-alone device for non-fusion stabilization was later recognized by the FDA as a new type of treatment, and consequently Zimmer© had to apply for a PMA. On the 4th of November 2009, the PMA application for this device was rejected.
2 Withdrawal from the market might be argued being a success of the FDA, albeit delayed. Although a comprehensive review executed by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) of the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom in 2009 based on available data found that the Dynesys is both safe and efficacious as a dynamic stabilization technique for some patients with intractable lumbar pain,
3 the gold standard for disc and facet joint degeneration with symptomatic instability still remains a rigid fusion technique [
34,
35]. Currently, the Dynesys
® is still globally the most used dynamic stabilization system, although now used in the USA in patients with an ‘off-label’ indication only.
A total of 154 publications were identified for the Dynesys
®. The approved 510(k) for the Dynesys
® in March 2004 consisted of a review [
36], a single prospective, non-randomized, non-controlled multi-center study (83 patients) [
37] and an in vitro study [
38]. None of these studies were performed primarily in the USA, which is one of the FDA’s requirements.
Post-approval, one RCT by Yu et al. was published which included a total of 53 patients, allocated to a posterior lumbar interbody fusion (26 patients) or Dynesys
® (27 patients) [
39]. Patients in both groups clinically improved, but no statistically significant differences between groups were found after 3-year follow-up. Complications were similar between groups. In addition, in 2007 1-year preliminary results as a part of a multicenter randomized FDA-IDE clinical trial including a number of 101 patients were published [
40]. However, this study had a non-comparative design. To our knowledge, no data on cost-effectiveness of the Dynesys
® has been published.
Deficiencies in the approval process of the Dynesys®
It might be argued, considering the assumed equivalence of this device to the Silhouette®, that surgeons and the manufacturer were not specifically interested in publishing data on indications and patient selection criteria for the Dynesys®. However, from a clinical point of view, the Dynesys® is no ordinary posterior instrumentation technique because of the dynamic component of it.
The limited amount of published research before the Dynesys
® was granted 510(k) clearance is especially disappointing because the Dynesys
® was introduced on the European market in 1999. Over 40,000 patients have been implanted with this device since then [
41], but with little published research. Thus, physicians did not report their clinical outcomes, even though the Dynesys
® was new and its safety and efficacy had not yet been demonstrated.
The Dynesys
® received its 510(k) approval long before the first and sole RCT was published [
39]. Although this device has been in clinical use for more than a decade, there was insufficient evidence in the period between the 510(k) approval and the rejected PMA application to determine whether this device resulted in improved health outcomes compared to standard treatments. Although short-term clinical results seemed favorable, long-term complications arose, including screw loosening, late infections and adjacent segment degeneration [
42‐
44]. It appears that these complications were not recognized and specifically addressed until 2005 [
45]. Thus, this was an example of a new technique that was widely used without the results being scientifically scrutinized.
As stated, Yu et al. found no significant differences between the Dynesys
® and the surgical standard in terms of clinical outcomes [
39]. If a new technique is proven to be non-inferior, then it should be proven to be safer and or more cost-effective, otherwise, no additional value is created. Cost-effectiveness of the Dynesys
® was not only not confirmed, it was not even investigated.
Finally it is important to note that a 510(k) pathway instead of a PMA procedure was chosen. The Dynesys® was considered to be of substantial equivalence, while basically, this should have been regarded as a new dynamic stabilization technique instead of a new type of posterior technique.