Plain English summary
Background
Methods
Study design and sampling technique
Data collection
Measures
Variables
Covariates
Statistical analyses
Ethics statement
Results
Characteristics | 2004 | 2010 | 2015 | 2004—2015 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 6795 | N = 4474 | N = 4363 | N = 15,732 | |||||||||
n
| (%) | SE |
n
| (%) | SE |
n
| (%) | SE |
n
| (%) | SE | |
Mode of delivery | ||||||||||||
Vaginal delivery | 6558 | (96.5) | 0.3 | 4349 | (95.3) | 0.4 | 4061 | (93.8) | 0.5 | 14,968 | (95.4) | 0.2 |
Caesarian delivery | 237 | (3.5) | 0.3 | 225 | (4.7) | 0.4 | 302 | (6.2) | 0.5 | 764 | (4.6) | 0.2 |
BMI category (kg/m) | ||||||||||||
Underweight (< 18.5) | 485 | (7.1) | 0.4 | 272 | (6.2) | 0.5 | 224 | (5.1) | 0.4 | 981 | (6.3) | 0.3 |
Normal (18.5–24.9) | 5432 | (79.5) | 0.6 | 3424 | (74.3) | 0.9 | 3174 | (73.6) | 0.9 | 12,030 | (76.3) | 0.5 |
Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 743 | (11.4) | 0.5 | 599 | (13.3) | 0.6 | 736 | (16.3) | 0.7 | 2078 | (13.3) | 0.4 |
Obese (≥30) | 135 | (2.0) | 2.0 | 279 | (6.2) | 0.5 | 229 | (5.0) | 0.4 | 643 | (4.1) | 0.2 |
Sex of the child | ||||||||||||
Male | 3485 | (51.1) | 0.7 | 2295 | (49.7) | 1.0 | 2176 | (49.4) | 0.9 | 7956 | (50.2) | 0.5 |
Female | 3310 | (48.9) | 0.7 | 2279 | (50.3) | 1.0 | 2187 | (50.6) | 0.9 | 7776 | (49.8) | 0.5 |
Maternal age (years) | ||||||||||||
15–19 | 462 | (6.8) | 0.4 | 260 | (5.7) | 0.4 | 281 | (6.8) | 0.5 | 1003 | (6.5) | 0.3 |
20–24 | 2196 | (32.5) | 0.7 | 1225 | (27.2) | 0.8 | 1283 | (29.4) | 0.9 | 4704 | (30.1) | 0.5 |
25–29 | 1735 | (25.8) | 0.6 | 1307 | (29.4) | 0.9 | 1094 | (24.6) | 0.8 | 4136 | (26.5) | 0.4 |
30–34 | 1100 | (16.0) | 0.5 | 829 | (17.2) | 0.7 | 856 | (20.1) | 0.8 | 2785 | (17.5) | 0.4 |
35–49 | 1302 | (18.9) | 0.6 | 953 | (20.5) | 0.8 | 849 | (19.2) | 0.7 | 3104 | (19.4) | 0.4 |
Mother’s educational level | ||||||||||||
No formal education | 1732 | (24.9) | 0.9 | 750 | (16.8) | 0.8 | 525 | (12.7) | 0.6 | 3007 | (19.2) | 0.5 |
Primary | 4288 | (63.1) | 0.8 | 3131 | (66.9) | 0.9 | 2779 | (65.6) | 0.9 | 10,198 | (64.6) | 0.5 |
Secondary or higher | 775 | (12.0) | 0.6 | 693 | (16.3) | 0.8 | 1059 | (22.7) | 0.8 | 2527 | (16.2) | 0.5 |
Household wealth | ||||||||||||
Poorest | 1292 | (18.9) | 0.7 | 967 | (19.7) | 0.9 | 918 | (23.5) | 0.8 | 3177 | (20.5) | 0.5 |
Poor | 1493 | (21.3) | 0.8 | 989 | (21.5) | 0.8 | 927 | (22.1) | 0.9 | 3409 | (21.6) | 0.5 |
Middle | 1584 | (22.5) | 0.7 | 1029 | (21.1) | 0.8 | 850 | (19.1) | 0.7 | 3463 | (21.1) | 0.4 |
Richer | 1374 | (20.1) | 0.7 | 903 | (18.5) | 0.7 | 820 | (18.0) | 0.8 | 3097 | (19.1) | 0.4 |
Richest | 1052 | (17.1) | 1.2 | 686 | (19.1) | 1.1 | 848 | (17.3) | 0.7 | 2586 | (17.8) | 0.7 |
Parity | ||||||||||||
1 | 1263 | (19.3) | 0.6 | 706 | (16.3) | 0.6 | 965 | (22.2) | 0.8 | 2934 | (19.2) | 0.4 |
2–3 | 2487 | (37.0) | 0.7 | 1668 | (40.0) | 0.9 | 1731 | (39.5) | 1.0 | 5886 | (38.0) | 0.5 |
4–5 | 1609 | (23.0) | 0.6 | 1212 | (25.7) | 0.8 | 1010 | (23.3) | 0.8 | 3831 | (23.9) | 0.4 |
≥ 6 | 1436 | (20.7) | 0.6 | 988 | (20.0) | 0.7 | 657 | (14.9) | 0.7 | 3081 | (18.9) | 0.4 |
Number of ANC visits | ||||||||||||
< 4 | 2839 | (41.8) | 0.8 | 2540 | (54.2) | 0.9 | 2125 | (48.3) | 1.0 | 7504 | (47.3) | 0.5 |
≥ 4 | 3956 | (58.2) | 0.8 | 2034 | (45.8) | 0.9 | 2238 | (51.7) | 1.0 | 8228 | (52.7) | 0.5 |
Smoking | ||||||||||||
No | 6776 | (99.8) | 0.1 | 4554 | (99.5) | 0.1 | 4337 | (99.5) | 0.1 | 15,667 | (99.6) | 0.1 |
Yes | 19 | (0.2) | 0.1 | 20 | (0.5) | 0.1 | 26 | (0.5) | 0.1 | 65 | (0.4) | 0.1 |
Place of residence | ||||||||||||
Urban | 761 | (13.8) | 1.5 | 489 | (16.0) | 1.0 | 763 | (14.3) | 0.6 | 2013 | (14.6) | 0.9 |
Rural | 6034 | (86.2) | 1.5 | 4085 | (84.0) | 1.0 | 3600 | (85.7) | 0.6 | 13,719 | (85.4) | 0.9 |
Geographical region | ||||||||||||
Northern | 897 | (13.2) | 1.1 | 798 | (11.2) | 0.7 | 797 | (11.2) | 0.4 | 2492 | (12.1) | 0.7 |
Central | 2486 | (39.5) | 1.7 | 1591 | (43.8) | 1.2 | 1534 | (43.2) | 0.8 | 5611 | (41.8) | 1.0 |
Southern | 3412 | (47.3) | 1.7 | 2185 | (45.0) | 1.1 | 2032 | (45.6) | 0.8 | 7629 | (46.1) | 1.0 |
Characteristics | 2004 | 2010 | 2015 | 2004–2015 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | |
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) |
n (%)
|
n (%)
|
n (%)
|
n (%)
| |
BMI category (kg/m) | ||||||||
Underweight (< 18.5) | 469 (96.7) | 16 (3.3)c | 265 (97.4) | 7 (2.6)b | 214 (95.5) | 10 (4.5)a | 11,509 (95.7) | 521 (4.3) |
Normal (18.5–24.9) | 5253 (96.7) | 179 (3.3) | 3266 (95.4) | 158 (4.6) | 2990 (94.2) | 184 (5.8) | 1941 (93.4) | 137 (6.6) |
Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 712 (95.8) |
31 (4.2)
| 563 (94.0) |
36 (6.0)
| 666 (90.5) |
70 (9.5)†
| 570 (88.7) | 73 (11.3) |
Obese (≥30) | 124 (91.9) |
11 (8.1)
| 255 (91.4) |
24 (9.6)
| 191 (83.4) |
38 (16.6)†
| 11,509 (95.7) | 521 (4.3) |
Sex of the child | ||||||||
Male | 3359 (96.4) | 126 (3.6) | 2176 (94.8) | 119 (5.2) | 2014 (92.6) | 162 (7.4) | 7549 (94.9) | 407 (5.1) |
Female | 3199 (96.7) | 111 (3.3) | 2173 (95.4) | 106 (4.6) | 2047 (93.6) | 140 (6.4) | 7419 (95.4) | 357 (4.6) |
Maternal age (years) | ||||||||
15–19 | 434 (93.9) | 28 (6.1)b | 248 (95.4) | 12 (4.6)c | 264 (94.0) | 17 (6.0)c | 946 (94.3) | 57 (5.7)b |
20–24 | 2112 (96.2) | 84 (3.8) | 1153 (94.1) | 72 (5.9) | 1198 (93.4) | 85 (6.6) | 4463 (94.9) | 241 (5.1) |
25–29 | 1676 (96.6) | 59 (3.4) | 1234 (94.4) | 73 (5.6) | 1000 (91.4) | 94 (8.6) | 3910 (94.5) | 226 (5.5) |
30–34 | 1066 (96.9) | 34 (3.1) | 803 (96.9) | 26 (3.1) | 792 (92.5) | 64 (7.5) | 2661 (95.5) | 124 (4.5) |
35–49 | 1270 (97.5) | 32 (2.5) | 911 (95.6) | 42 (4.4) | 807 (95.1) | 42 (4.9) | 2988 (96.3) | 116 (3.7) |
Mother’s educational level | ||||||||
No formal education | 1695 (97.9) | 37 (2.1)a | 732 (97.6) | 18 (2.4)a | 508 (96.8) | 17 (3.2)a | 2935 (97.6) | 72 (2.4)a |
Primary | 4147 (96.7) | 141 (3.3) | 2994 (95.6) | 137 (4.4) | 2622 (94.4) | 157 (5.6) | 9763 (95.7) | 435 (4.3) |
Secondary or higher | 716 (92.4) | 59 (7.6) | 623 (89.9) | 70 (10.1) | 931 (87.9) | 128 12.1) | 2270 (89.8) | 257 (10.2) |
Household wealth | ||||||||
Poorest | 1249 (96.7) | 43 (3.3)a | 933 (96.5) | 34 (3.5)a | 879 (95.8) | 39 4.2)a | 3061 (96.4) | 116 (3.6)a |
Poor | 1454 (97.4) | 39 (2.6) | 953 (96.4) | 36 (3.6) | 892 (96.2) | 35 (3.8) | 3299 (96.8) | 110 (3.2) |
Middle | 1544 (97.5) | 40 (2.5) | 990 (96.2) | 39 (3.8) | 802 (94.4) | 48 (5.6) | 3336 (96.3) | 127 (3.7) |
Richer | 1342 (96.4) | 50 (3.6) | 853 (94.5) | 50 (5.5) | 763 (93.1) | 57 (6.9) | 2940 (94.9) | 157 (5.1) |
Richest | 987 (93.8) | 65 (6.2) | 620 (90.4) | 66 (9.6) | 725 (85.5) | 123(14.5) | 2332 (90.2) | 254 (9.8) |
Parity | ||||||||
1 | 1184 (93.8) | 79 (6.2)a | 640 (90.7) | 66 (9.3)a | 871 (90.3) | 94 (9.7)a | 2695 (91.9) | 239 (8.1)a |
2–3 | 2409 (96.9) | 78 (3.1) | 1582 (94.8) | 86 (5.2) | 1599(92.4) | 132 (7.6) | 5590 (95.0) | 296 (5.0) |
4–5 | 1564 (97.2) | 45 (2.8) | 1174 (96.9) | 38 (4.1) | 959 (95.0) | 51 (4.5) | 3697 (96.5) | 134 (3.5) |
≥ 6 | 1401 (97.6) | 35 (2.4) | 953 (96.5) | 35 (3.5) | 632 (96.2) | 25 (3.8) | 2986 (96.9) | 95 (3.1) |
Number of ANC visits | ||||||||
< 4 | 2774 (97.7) | 65 (2.3)b | 2434 (95.8) | 106(4.2)b | 2009(94.5) | 116 5.5)b | 7217 (96.2) | 287 (3.8)a |
≥ 4 | 3784 (95.7) | 172 (4.3) | 1915 (94.2) | 119 (5.8) | 2052(91.7) | 186 (8.3) | 7751 (94.2) | 477 (5.8) |
Smoking | ||||||||
No | 6540 (96.5) | 236 (3.5) | 4330 (95.1) | 224 (4.9) | 4036(93.1) | 301 (6.9) | 14,906 (95.1) | 761 (4.9) |
Yes | 18 (94.7) | 1 (5.3) | 19 (95.0) | 1 (5.0) | 25 (96.2) | 1 (3.8) | 62 (95.4) | 3 (4.6) |
Place of residence | ||||||||
Urban | 716 (94.1) | 45 (5.9)b | 449 (91.8) | 40 (8.2)b | 658 (86.2) | 105 (13.8)a | 1823 (90.6) | 190 (9.4)a |
Rural | 5842 (96.8) | 192 (3.2) | 3900 (95.5) | 185 (4.5) | 3403(94.5) | 197 (5.5) | 13,145 (95.8) | 574 (4.2) |
Geographical region | ||||||||
Northern | 852 (95.0) | 47 (4.5)c | 752 (94.2) | 46 (5.8) | 710 (89.1) | 7(10.9)a | 2314 (92.9) | 178 (7.1)a |
Central | 2409 (96.9) | 77 (3.1) | 1521 (95.6) | 70 (4.4) | 1433(93.4) | 101 (6.6) | 5363 (95.6) | 248 (4.4) |
Southern | 3297 (96.6) | 115 (3.4) | 2076 (95.0) | 109 (5.0) | 1918(94.4) | 114 (5.6) | 7291 (95.6) | 338 (4.4) |
Characteristics | 2004 | 2010 | 2015 | 2004—2015 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AORs | 95% (CI) | AORs | 95% (CI) | AORs | 95% (CI) | AORs | 95% (CI) | |
BMI category (kg/m2) | ||||||||
Underweight (< 18.5) | 1.04 | (0.61–1.76) | 0.53 | (0.24–1.15) | 0.77 | (0.38–1.55) | 0.78 | (0.54–1.12) |
Normal (18.5–24.9) | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 1.25 | (0.83–1.87) | 1.19 | (0.80–1.77) |
1.36
|
(1.01–1.83)
c
|
1.35
|
(1.10–1.65)
b
|
Obese (≥30) |
2.15
|
(1.12–4.11)
c
|
1.66
|
(1.08–2.55)
c
|
2.18
|
(1.48–3.21)
a
|
2.16
|
(1.65–2.84)
a
|
Sex of the child | ||||||||
Male | 1.10 | (0.84–1.43) | 1.11 | (0.84–1.48) | 1.19 | (0.93–1.51) | 1.13 | (0.97–1.30) |
Female | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Maternal age (years) | ||||||||
18–19 | 1.37 | (0.61–3.08) |
0.28
|
(0.11–0.70)
b
| 0.57 | (0.26–1.22) |
0.55
|
(0.35–0.87)
c
|
20–24 | 1.03 | (0.51–2.09) | 0.53 | (0.27–1.02) | 0.66 | (0.37–1.19) |
0.61
|
(0.42–0.88)
b
|
25–29 | 1.15 | (0.63–2.11) | 0.71 | (0.39–1.30) | 0.99 | (0.58–1.67) | 0.86 | (0.62–1.19) |
30–34 | 1.27 | (0.74–2.17) |
0.55
|
(0.32–0.95)
c
| 1.07 | (0.67–1.73) | 0.94 | (0.70–1.27) |
35–49 | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Mother’s educational level | ||||||||
No formal education |
0.48
|
(0.29–0.81)
b
|
0.41
|
(0.22–0.77)
b
| 0.67 | (0.38–1.17) |
0.47
|
(0.35–0.64)
a
|
Primary |
0.61
|
(0.42–0.89)
c
|
0.67
|
(0.47–0.96)
c
| 0.87 | (0.65–1.17) |
0.69
|
(0.57–0.83)
b
|
Secondary or higher | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Household wealth | ||||||||
Poorest | 0.92 | (0.55–1.52) |
0.60
|
(0.36–0.99)
c
|
0.57
|
(0.36–0.91)
c
|
0.72
|
(0.54–0.94)
c
|
Poor | 0.71 | (0.42–1.19) |
0.55
|
(0.35–0.92)
c
|
0.47
|
(0.30–0.73)
c
|
0.59
|
(0.45–0.78)
b
|
Middle | 0.65 | (0.40–1.06) |
0.55
|
(0.34–0.87)
c
|
0.66
|
(0.45–0.98)
c
|
0.63
|
(0.49–0.82)
b
|
Richer | 0.82 | (0.52–1.28) | 0.74 | (0.50–1.10) | 0.71 | (0.50–1.00) |
0.77
|
(0.61–0.96)
c
|
Richest | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Parity | ||||||||
1 | 1.98 | (0.91–4.12) |
3.71
|
(1.76–7.83)
b
|
3.11
|
(1.51–6.43)
b
|
3.18
|
(2.10–4.81)
a
|
2–3 | 1.10 | (0.57–2.09) | 1.65 | (0.86–3.17) | 1.87 | (0.97–3.58) |
1.70
|
(1.19–2.42)
b
|
4–5 | 1.04 | (0.61–1.73) | 0.96 | (0.54–1.70) | 1.11 | (0.63–1.98) | 1.09 | (0.80–1.49) |
≥ 6 | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Number of ANC visits | ||||||||
Inadequate |
0.56
|
(0.42–0.76)
a
|
0.75
|
(0.58–0.98)
c
|
0.76
|
(0.58–0.99)
c
|
0.72
|
(0.62–0.84)
a
|
Adequate | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Smoking | ||||||||
No | 0.45 | (0.06–3.50) | 1.21 | (0.16–9.13) | 1.53 | (0.17–13.8) | 0.90 | (0.27–3.05) |
Yes | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Place of residence | ||||||||
Urban | 1.05 | (0.70–1.58) | 0.96 | (0.64–1.42) |
1.37
|
(1.00–1.87)
c
| 1.18 | (0.96–1.45) |
Rural | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |
Geographical region | ||||||||
Northern | 1.36 | (0.95–1.96) | 1.01 | (0.70–1.45) |
1.74
|
(1.27–2.39)
b
|
1.40
|
(1.15–1.70)
b
|
Central | 0.98 | (0.73–1.33) | 0.83 | (0.60–1.14) | 1.16 | (0.87–1.55) | 1.00 | (0.84–1.19) |
Southern | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. | 1.00 | Ref. |