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Erschienen in: Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 1/2015

Open Access 01.12.2015 | Research

Medicinal plants sold in the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar

verfasst von: Maria Nirina Randriamiharisoa, Alyse R. Kuhlman, Vololoniaina Jeannoda, Harison Rabarison, Nivo Rakotoarivelo, Tabita Randrianarivony, Fortunat Raktoarivony, Armand Randrianasolo, Rainer W. Bussmann

Erschienen in: Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine | Ausgabe 1/2015

Abstract

Background

This study focuses on the large outdoor markets of the capital of Madagascar, Antananarivo. As the largest metropolitan area in Madagascar with a population of nearly two million, the region has great capacity for consumption of medicinal plant remedies despite numerous pharmacies. Medicinal plant use spans all socioeconomic levels, and the diverse metropolitan population allows us to study a wide variety of people who consume these plants for medical purposes. The purpose of this study is to identify and generate a list of medicinal plants sold in the traditional markets with a focus on those collected in the forests around Antananarivo, get an idea of the quantities of medicinal plants sold in the markets around Antananarivo, and assess the economy of the medicinal plant markets.

Methods

In order to determine which medicinal plants are most consumed in Antananarivo, ethnobotanical enquiries were conducted in the five main markets of the capital city. Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted with medicinal plant traders, suppliers, harvesters and cultivators, with voucher specimens created from the plants discussed. Trade circuit information was established and the income generated by the trade of some of the species was assessed.

Results

The inventory of the Antananarivo markets resulted in a list of 89 commercialized plant species. Ten of the 89 were mentioned by 60-100 % of vendors. Profitability for vendors is high and competitive with other salaried positions within Antananarivo. Transportation costs are also high and therefore lower profitability for other members in the supply chain.

Conclusions

The markets of Antananarivo have always played a vital cultural role in the lives of urban Malagasy, but our study shows they also play an economic role not only for urban residents but rural harvesters as well. Continued research and monitoring of the non-timber forest products trade in Antananarivo is needed to better understand the impact of trade on the wild plant populations.
Hinweise

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

All authors designed the study and contributed to writing the manuscript. MNR conducted the interviews and completed the data analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Background

The use of plants for medical treatment and therapy is a practice as old as humanity, dating as far back as the oldest known written documents and found in nearly every known culture [13]. Traditional medicine is rich due to the diversity of human groups, languages, and customs, combined with the diversity of ecological regions, leading to innovative plant use and specialized knowledge [4]. The World Health Organization estimates that nearly 80 % of the population in developing countries depends mainly on traditional medicine for the treatment of ailments [5]. The dependence on remedies derived from medicinal plants is particularly important in developing countries where modern medicine is often absent or simply too expensive [6, 7]. Economic devaluation of the developing countries leads to higher prices of pharmaceuticals and makes medicinal plants and traditional medicine more attractive [8]. Additionally, some prefer traditional medicine for various reasons including familiarity, tradition and perceived safety [9, 10].
Medicinal plants can be of great importance in the daily lives of those who live near places where they grow, not only for their healing traditions but as a commodity to take to the urban areas where they are not locally found to be sold in the marketplace [11]. Trade of non-timber forest products (NTFP) has been a mainstay for rural economies with a large majority being sourced from wild populations [12]. Rural farmers and residents therefore have a financial interest to not only exploit and develop trade of these natural resources [13], but also to consider conservation measures [14, 15]. The domestic market of medicinal plants of Madagascar is not well documented, and the market for medicinal plants and derivatives only represents a small fraction compared to all internal and external trade of the country [16]. Our study focused on the city of Antananarivo and its medicinal plant markets. As the capital of Madagascar Antananarivo is the largest metropolitan area with a population of nearly 2 million, and the region has great potential for consumption of medicinal plant remedies despite numerous allopathic pharmacies [11]. Medicinal plant-use in Madagascar spans all socioeconomic levels and the diverse metropolitan population allowed to study a wide variety of people using plant products. The objective of this study was to identify and generate a list of medicinal plants sold in the traditional markets with a focus on those collected in the forests around Antananarivo, as well as getting information on the quantities of medicinal plants sold in the markets around Antananarivo, and to assess the economy of the medicinal plant markets. Interviews were started with the vendors at the major markets of Antananarivo, and continued with suppliers wherever possible. We then tried to elucidate who cultivated or harvested plants sourced by the suppliers and finally who held the knowledge of traditional plant medicine for the region.

Methods

Study area

Antananarivo is the capital of Madagascar, the fourth largest island in the world, and centrally located in the highlands at nearly 1,300 meters above sea level [17]. We conducted surveys in five major markets of Antananarivo: the Esplanade Analakely, Petite Vitesse, Pavilion Analakely, Isotry and Andravohangy. These markets were chosen based on the following criteria: market size and popularity, medicinal plant species sold on the premises, and knowledge of vendors regarding the use and sale of medicinal plants. Furthermore, markets in Antananarivo are housed in permanent buildings where vendors occupy permanent booths, which allowed for repeat visits to the same vendor to update lists and conduct further interviews.

Markets

The medicinal plant market includes two subsectors: the traditional medicinal plant market and the pharmaceutical market. The traditional plant market, known as raokandro, includes plants for public use with little to no processing (dried, raw material). The plants were sold either singularly or as a mix with other plants for a particular treatment. Other types of legal plant markets in Antananarivo are pharmaceutical, cosmetics and aromatherapy shops marked with HOMEOPHARMA and IRMA, selling mostly medicinal plants and medicinal plant products that have undergone extensive modification (liquid extract, cream, ointment). The present study focused on the medicinal plant trade within the raokandro. A variety of actors were involved in the sale of medicinal plants. These included operators, collectors, harvesters, and small retailers. The definitions we followed were taken from the ministerial decree number 2915/87 of 30 June 1987 and the Decree of 17 November 1930 mentioned in Articles 32 and 33 are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Definition of participants within the herbal market trade scheme. Types of collectors and their role within the trade as defined by the Madagascar government
Operators
Persons who legally hold a license or an operating agreement to operate and collect medicinal plants and forest products to sell or use as raw materials.
Collectors
These are individuals who collect plants from those who harvest in the forest. They are authorized to carry out the grouping of plants with several collectors.
Harvesters
These are the persons authorized to conduct harvesting or gathering medicinal plants for commercial purposes
Rural harvesters
Those who come from the rural areas surrounding the city of Antananarivo to deliver medicinal species to the market sellers
Urban harvesters
people living in the vicinity of the capital, which also make deliveries to vendors of medicinal plants in the traditional market of Antananarivo
Public resellers (vendors)
These are the people who sell plants to the public. Called "tapa-mpivarotra kazo" or "mpivarotra raokandro” in Malagasy.

Ethnobotanical surveys

To gather information about the market of medicinal plants, a series of semi-structured interviews were conducted with traders at the traditional markets (raokandro) of Antananarivo after obtaining oral prior informed consent. Questionnaires were used as a foundation for discussions with the collectors and traders. During market interviews we conducted our survey individually and iteratively [18]. All medicinal species that were discussed with the vendors were also purchased from the vendors at the regular price. Medicinal plants were then identified at the department of Plant Biology and Ecology at the University of Antananarivo and crosschecked with published ethnobotanical and floristic literature where available [1922]. Plant names follow www. TROPICOS.org. Herbarium vouchers were deposited at the herbaria of Centre National de la Recherche Appliquée au Developement Rural (TEF), Parc de Tsimbazaza (TAN) and Missouri Botanical Garden (MO).

Statistical analysis

For each medicinal plant a Use Index (UI%) was calculated to give a ranking of the importance of the use and trade of medicinal species in markets of Antananarivo. The UI% is calculated from the formula, UI = (na/NA) x 100, where na is the number of interviewees who cite the species as useful and NA is the totally number of people interviewed [23]. In this case, na represents represent the number of vendors who sell a particular medicinal species. The following formulas were used to calculate the profit margin of the various intermediaries surveyed. For sellers, Bv = PV- PA where the benefit to vendors (Bv) is the difference between the sale price (PV) and the purchase price (PA). For harvesters (rural and urban), Bh = ΣR - ΣEx, where the benefit to harvesters (Bh) is the difference between the revenue (R) and expenditure costs (Ex). Profit margin (PM) was calculated with PM = B / ΣR, based on [23].

Results and discussion

We interviewed 86 people in the traditional markets of medicinal plants in Antananarivo. Table 2 summarizes the survey sites and the number of informants surveyed.
Table 2
Market sites and number of informants surveyed
Market
Number of vendors
Rural harvesters
Intermediaries or Urban harvesters
Esplanade Analakely
9
0
3
Petite Vitesse
21
15
7
Andravoahangy
21
5
0
Pavilion Analakely
2
0
0
Isotry
3
0
0
Total
56
20
10
Total interviewed
86
We were able to identify 89 medicinal plant species from 56 vendors. A list of medicinal plants is presented in Table 3. The actual number of species sold is likely higher than what we were able to identify because of the study’s limited duration [24]. Furthermore, vendors spoke only about plants that at the time of the interview were available in their stalls. Other plants might be sold at other times, but if they were not available for purchase the sellers did not mention them.
Table 3
List of medicinal plants sold at the Antananarivo medicinal markets. Scientific name, vernacular name, plant part used, disease treated and voucher number [MTR = Randriamiharisoa, Maria T.] for all 89 plants identified at the Antananarivo Markets. Use citations were compared with Madagascar ethnobotany published literature: [1] Boiteau P, Allorge- Boiteau L, 1993; [2] Samyn, JM, 1999; [3] Gurib-Fakim A, Brendler T, 2004
Scientific name
Vernacular name
Part used
Application
Uses cited in literature
Voucher number
Acanthaceae
     
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.
Afiafy
Leaf
Stomach ulcer
 
MTR142
Justicia sp.
Belohalika
Leaf
Neuralgia
 
MTR190
Amaranthaceae
     
Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad.) Schinz
Tangogo
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis, diabetes, cardiac problems
 
MTR163
Anacardiaceae
     
Anacardium occidentale L.
Mahabibo
Leaf
Diabetes, hemorrhoids, stomach ulcer, allergies, hepatitis, wounds, incontinence, anorexia
 
MTR127
Rhus taratana (Baker) H. Perrier
Andriambavimahery
Leaf
Wounds, stomach ulcer
 
MTR174
Apiaceae
     
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Talapetraka
Entire plant
Stomach ulcer, wounds
Wounds3, skin eczema3, accesses3, conjunctivitis3
MTR138
Apocynaceae
     
Catharanthus lanceus (Bojer ex A. DC.) Pichon
Vonenina
Root
Cancer
Diuretic2, purgative2, vermifuge2, sores2
MTR161
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don
Vonenina
Root
Cancer, appetite suppressant
Hypotensive1, antidepressant1, antitumoral1, purgative2, diabetes2, appetite suppressant2, vermifuge3, diarrhea3, dysentery3
MTR162
Cynanchum sp.
Vahamavo
Leaf
Asthenia, erectile dysfunction
 
MTR191
Pentopetia sp.
Tandrokosy
Leaf
Cough, hepatitis, neuralgia
 
MTR189
Araliaceae
     
Schefflera bojeri (Seem.) R. Vig.
Tsingila
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis
 
MTR143
Schefflera sp.
Ramadio
Leaf
Neurasthenia, back pain
 
MTR144
Asteraceae
     
Brachylaena ramiflora (DC.) Humbert
Ramanjavona
Leaf
Asthenia, stomach ulcer,
 
MTR173
Cynara scolymus L.
Artichaut
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis
 
MTR192
Distephanus polygalifolius (Less.) H. Rob. & B. Kahn
Ninginingina
Leaf
Syphilis, neuralgia, back pain, stomach ulcerm, hepatitis, albumin, incontinence
 
MTR136
Emilia citrina DC.
Tsiotsiona
Leaf
Asthenia, anorexia
 
MTR202
Helichrysum faradifani Scott- Elliot
Haihalala
Leaf
Gonorrhea, cough, asthenia, fever, stomach ulcer, hepatitis
 
MTR159
Helichrysum gymnocephalum (DC.) Humbert
Rambiazina
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, cough, wound, severe headache
Headaches1, bronchitis1, ulcers1, heartburn2, upset stomach2, fever2, diarrhea3, dysmenorrhea3, rheumatism3, gout3
MTR160
Inulanthera brownii (Hochr.) Källersjö
Kelimavitrika
Leaf
Immune system of children, erectile dysfunction, stiffness
 
MTR128
Psiadia altissima (DC.) Drake
Sakatavilotra
Leaf
Cough, wound, diarrhea
Fever3, abdominal pain3, antiseptic3, toothache3, boils3
MTR220
Senecio canaliculatus Bojer ex DC.
Ramijaingy
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, gastroenteritis, syphilis
 
MTR201
Vernonia appendiculata Less.
Ambiaty
Leaf
Fever, nerves
 
MTR193
Bignoniaceae
     
Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don
Zaharandaha
Leaf
Sinusitis, severe headache
 
MTR145
Phyllarthron bojeranum DC.
Zahana
Leaf
Asthenia, erectile dysfunction, severe headache, gonorrhea, cough, syphilis
 
MTR175
Symphytum orientale L.
Konsody ou Maseza
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis
 
MTR203
Cactaceae
     
Cereus triangularis (L.) Haw.
Tsilo
Root
Kidney stones, urinary tract problems, syphilis, gonorrhea
 
MTR158
Canellaceae
     
Cinnamosma madagascariensis Danguy
Mandravasarotra
Bark
Astenia, erectile dysfunction, stomach ulcer
Stomach pain3, colic3, analgesic3, indigestion3, stimulant3, cough3, dysentery3
MTR194
Celastraceae
     
Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes.
Fanazava
Leaf
Neuralgia, hepatitis, albumin, erectile dysfunction, back pain, urinary tract problems, stomach ulcer, hypertension, immune deficiency
Fatigue3,neuralgia3, purgative3, vertigo3
MTR126
Combretaceae
     
Combretum coccineum (Sonn.) Lam.
Tamenaka
Fruit
Intestinal parasites
Anthelmintic,3, liver problems3
MTR200
Terminalia catappa L.
Atafana
Leaf
Urinary tract problems
Astringent3, sudorific3, dysentery3
MTR188
Commelinaceae
     
Commelina madagascarica C.B. Clarke
Nifinakanga
Leaf
Abortifacient, acne
 
MTR176
Crassulaceae
     
Kalanchoe prolifera R. Hamet
Sodifafana
Leaf
Neurasthenia
Boils3, furuncles3, wounds3, rheumatism3
MTR186
Cyperaceae
     
Cyperus papyrus subsp. madagascariensis (Willd.) Kük.
Fonjozoro
Stem
Emphysema, back pain
 
MTR146
Droseraceae
     
Drosera madagascariensis DC.
Mahantanando
Leaf
Conjunctivitis, enurensis
Coughs3, toothpaste3, dyspepsia3, anemia3
MTR129
Ebenaceae
     
Diospyros sp.
Bois de rose
Bark
Cysticercosis, intestinal parasites, taxoplasmosis, emphysema, diabetes, albumin regulation, allergies
 
MTR171
Equisetaceae
     
Equisetum sp.
Tsitoatoana
Leaf
Constipation, urinary tract problems
 
MTR177
Euphorbiaceae
     
Ricinus communis L.
Tanantanamanga
Leaf
Asthenia, hemorrhoids, wounds, intestinal parasites, cold
Galactagogue1,2, purgative1,2, laxative1,2, intestinal worms1, tapeworm1, headache2, rheumatism2, dental cavities2, wounds2, fevers2
MTR164
Fabaceae
     
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.
Vatolalaka
Fruit
Hemorrhoids, appendicitis
 
MTR204
Phylloxylon xylophylloides (Baker) Du Puy, Labat & Schrire
Arahara
Leaf
Hepatitis, urinary tract problems, pharyngitis
 
MTR184
Senna septentrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby
Anjanajana
Leaf
Immune system children, gastroenteritis
 
MTR147
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link
Tsotsorinangatra
Stem
Syphilis, gonorrhea, prostate tumor, hypertension, hepatitis, rheumatism
 
MTR165
Tamarindus indica L.
Voamadilo
Leaf
Constipation, gastroenteritis, wounds
Laxative1,vermifuge1, stomach ache1, general wounds1
MTR125
Gentianaceae
     
Tachiadenus longifolius Scott- Elliot
Tapabatana
Leaf
Diarrhea, stomach ulcer
 
MTR172
Gesneriaceae
     
Streptocarpus hilsenbergii R. Br.
Mangavony
Enitre plant
Hepatitis, acne
 
MTR185
Hydrostachyaceae
     
Hydrostachys stolonifera Baker
Tsilavondrina
Leaf
Asthenia
 
MTR187
Hypericaceae
     
Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir.
Harongana
Leaf
Wounds, asthma, cough, stomach ulcer, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, albumin, allergies, insomnia
Scabies1,2, stomach ache1, flatulence1, anticatarrhal1,2, bladder infections2, syphilis2, menstruation regulation2, fever2, wounds2, diarrhea2,3, hemorrhoids2, skin diseases3
MTR130
Psorospermum sp.
Todihazo
Stem
Scabies, leprosy
 
MTR148
Psorospermum ferrovestitum Baker
Andriambolamena
Leaf
Female infertility, abortifacient, stomach ulcer, hypertension, intestinal parasites
 
MTR166
Lamiaceae
     
Ocimum gratissimum L.
Romba
Leaf
Severe headache, albumin, wounds, abortifacient, cold, low calcium, dental problems
Digestion3, chest complaints3, diarrhea3, vomiting3, anticatarrh3, antiseptic3
MTR205
Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd
Borona
Leaf
Cough, wounds, hepatitis
 
MTR221
Lauraceae
     
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl
Ravitsara
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis, abortifacient, jaundice, hypertension, appendicitis, rheumatism
Fevers3, rheumatism3, abortifacient3
MTR122
Loganiaceae
     
Anthocleista madagascariensis Baker
Landemy
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, diarrhea, malaria, constipation, abdominal colic, severe headache
Fever1,2, dysentery1,2, emetic1,2, laxative1,2
MTR149
Lycopodiaceae
     
Lycopodium sp.
Karakaratoloha
Leaf
Hepatitis, hypertension, gastroenteritis, epilepsy
 
MTR157
Meliaceae
     
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Nimo
Leaf
Asthenia, diabetes, albumin, rheumatism, pelvic pain, boils, hepatitis, kidney stones, burns, constipation, high cholesterol
 
MTR124
Cedrelopsis grevei Baill.
Katrafay
Bark
Asthenia, erectile dysfunction, neurasthenia, back pain
 
MTR141
Neobeguea mahafaliensis J.-F. Leroy
Andy
Bark
Asthenia, erectile dysfunction'
 
MTR183
Molluginaceae
     
Mollugo nudicaulis Lam.
Aferotany
Entire plant
Cough, gastroenteritis
 
MTR178
Moraceae
     
Ficus reflexa Thunb.
Nonoka
Leaf
Hepatitis, gastroenteritis, wounds, albumin, hemorrhoids
 
MTR167
Morus alba L.
Voaroihazo
Leaf
Low calium, anorexia
 
MTR209
Primulaceae
     
Embelia concinna Baker
Tanterakala
Leaf
Intestinal parasites, erectile dysfunction
 
MTR206
Myrtaceae
     
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.
Kininina oliva
Leaf
Cold, severe headache
 
MTR210
Eucalyptus sp.
Kininimpotsy
Leaf
Cold, severe headache
 
MTR211
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Rotra
Bark
Diarrhea, gastroenteritis
 
MTR131
Nymphaeaceae
     
Nymphaea sp.
Betsimilana
Leaf
Female infertility, abortifacient, albumin, painful menstruation
 
MTR219
Onagraceae
     
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H. Raven
Volondrano
Leaf
Emphysema
Nose bleeds3, diarrhea3, malnourishment3
MTR150
Orchiaceae
     
Vanilla madagascariensis Rolfe
Vahinamalona
Stem
Erectile dysfunction, asthenia
Aphrodisiac1,
MTR208
Pedaliaceae
     
Uncarina sp.
Farehitra
Leaf
Acne
Dandruff3, alopecia3
MTR132
Poaceae
     
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Fandrotrarana
Entire plant
Syphilis, kidney stones
 
MTR168
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch.
Fakatenina
Root
Kidney stones
 
MTR182
Zea mays L.
Volokatsaka
Silk
Urinary tract problems, hepatitis, kidney stones
 
MTR156
Pteridaceae
     
Adiantum capillus-veneris L.
Ampanga
Leaf
Allergies, cough
Respiratory problems1, diuretic1, chickenpox1, measles1
MTR207
Ranunculaceae
     
Clematis mauritiana Lam.
Farimafy
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis, erectile dysfunction
Antiasthmatic3, rheumatism3, cough3, bronchitis3, abdominal pains3
MTR179
Rubiaceae
     
Oldenlandia sp.
Ahipody
Leaf
Scabies, leprosy
 
MTR218
Paederia foetida L.
Vahamaibo, laingomaimbo
Leaf
Dental issues, wound, stomach ulcer, gastroenteritis
Diuretic1,3, diaphoretic1, purgative1, skin issues1,3, ulcers1, boils3, venereal diseases3, bladder issues3, gastric pains3
MTR123
Pauridiantha paucinervis (Hiern) Bremek.
Tamirova
Leaf
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis, hypertension, urinary tract problems, rheumatism, malaria, albumin, diabetes
 
MTR153
Rutaceae
     
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.
Fanala simba
Elaf
Syphilis, gonorrhea
Malaria3, digestive complaints3, fever3, cholera3, diarrhea3, rheumatism3, syphilis3
MTR181
Salicaceae
     
Homalium parkeri Baker
Hazomby
Bark
Dental issues
 
MTR140
Salviniaceae
     
Azolla sp.
Ramilamina
Lower
Cardiac arrest
 
MTR170
Smilacaceae
     
Smilax anceps Willd.
Avotra
Leaf
Gastroenteritis, abdominal colic
Varicose veins3,eczema3, liver disorders3
MTR180
Solanaceae
     
Brugmansia candida Pers.
Datroa
Leaf
Epilepsy, paraplegia
 
MTR152
Physalis peruviana L.
Voanantsindrana
Leaf
Rheumatism, urinary tract problems, syphilis, stomach ulcer, hepatitis
Eat berries before physical exertion1, diuretic1,3, kidney stones1, rheumatism1, abscess2, liver disease2, gout3, fever3, heart palpitations3, emollient3
MTR137
Solanum mauritianum Scop.
Seva
Leaf
Hepatitis, wound
General disinfectant1, Stomach ulcers2
MTR151
Stilbaceae
     
Nuxia capitata Baker
Valanirana
Leaf
Gastroenteritis, asthenia, cough
 
MTR169
Urticaceae
     
Urera acuminata (Poir.) Gaudich. ex Decne.
Sampy vato
Leaf
Kidney stones, abortifacient, hepatitis, stomach ulcer
Irritant to skin and eyes3, childbirth3
MTR133
Verbenaceae
     
Lantana camara L.
Randriaka
Leaf
Hemorrhage, hypertension
 
MTR155
Xanthorrhoeaceae
     
Aloe macroclada Baker
Vahona
Leaf
Cancer, allergies, acne, fungus
 
MTR139
Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC.
Erana
Leaf
Intestinal parasites, constipation, back pain, gonorrhea
Eczema3, dysentery3, stomach pains3
MTR154
Zingiberaceae
     
Zingiber sp.
Tamotamo
Tuber
Cough
 
MTR135
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Sakamalao
Tuber
Cough
 
MTR134
Among the medicinal species available at the major markets of the city of Antananarivo, we encountered nine plant part used: leaves (73 %), bark (7 %), stems (5 %), roots (5 %), entire plant (4 %), fruit (2 %), tuber (2 %), flower (1 %), other (1 %). (Fig. 1) Leaves were by far the most common plant material used, followed by bark. While leaves and bark were often well represented in other studies, only 50 % of the combined total in our study were leaves and bark, similar to in Sierra Leone [25]. These most common health complaints treated with plants were hepatitis, kidney stones, asthenia, wounds, coughs and gastroenteritis (Fig. 2).

Most traded medicinal species

Table 4 lists the ten most traded species in the markets, including the Use Index calculated for each of these species, which varied from 61 % to 100 %. Prices are typically the main economic indicators about the supply and demand for a product, with higher prices indicating species with higher demand and lower supply. However, we found that the organization of economic actors within the regional medicinal plant trade was also a determinant of prices, often affecting the price based on who and how the species was sourced. Vendors bought their plants from rural harvesters, urban harvesters, and collectors, which is a common trade pattern found in other parts of Africa as well [26]. Increased number of intermediaries before a species reaches the sellers increased the price on the market. Two commercial channels could be distinguished: a short circuit, when harvesters moved to Antananarivo to be closer to the markets in order to sell their products directly themselves, and a long circuit, consisting of a long chain of intermediaries the products passed through before reaching sellers in Antananarivo (Fig. 3). The purchase price of medicinal plants varied widely depending on the species, but we found that prices were constant for a given species.
Table 4
Use index calculated for the most traded species and their treatment associations
Family
Scientific name
Vernacular name
Application
Use index
Rubiaceae
Pauridiantha paucinervis (Hiern) Bremek.
Tamirova
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis, high blood pressure, urogenital diseases, rheumatism, malaria, edema, diabetes
100 %
Meliaceae
Cedrelopsis grevei Baill.
Katrafay
Asthenia, erectile dysfunction, back pain
100 %
Meliaceae
Neobeguea mahafaliensis J.-F. Leroy
Andy
Asthenia, erectile dysfunction
82 %
Cactaceae
Cereus triangularis (L.) Haw.
Tsilo
Kidney stones, dysuria, anuria, syphilis, gonorrhea
78 %
Fabaceae
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link
Tsotsorinangatra
Syphilis, gonorrhea, enlarged prostate, high blood pressure, rheumatism, hepatitis
70 %
Lamiaceae
Ocimum gratissimum L.
Romba
Intense headache, edema, wounds, repeated miscarriages, cold, hypocalcemia, dental pain
65 %
Boraginaceae
Symphytum orientale L.
Konsody
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis
65 %
Asteraceae
Cynara cardunculus subsp. flavescens Wiklund
Artichaut
Stomach ulcer, hepatitis
64 %
Asteraceae
Distephanus polygalifolius (Less.) H. Rob. & B. Kahn
Ninginingina
Syphilis, neuralgia, back pain, stomach ulcer, hepatitis, edema, enuresis
61 %
Urticaceae
Urera acuminata (Poir.) Gaudich. ex Decne.
Sampivato
Kidney stones, repeated miscarriages, hepatitis, stomach ulcer
61 %
However, product price increased with each change of hands as transportation costs or other fees incurred. As found in other parts of the world, the amount of time, energy and resources needed to transport medicinal plants to the market was considered extremely high [27]. In addition, the price also fluctuated depending on the customer's apparent wealth and the type of market (i.e.: tourist handicraft market). Medicinal plants were often supplied from a collector two to four times a week, while some species were only delivered once a month or once a year (in the case of plants came from other provinces of Madagascar). Urban harvesters could afford to bring small amounts of plants (a basket or box) as they sold their products almost daily. Table 5 summarizes the types of providers and delivery frequency by type of market.
Table 5
Suppliers and frequency of deliveries at each market site
Market
Frequency of delivery
Transportation
 
Rural harvesters
Urban harvesters
Collection
 
Andravoahangy
2 times a week
Daily
3x/month
By foot
Isotry
Irregular
Daily
Irregular
By foot
Petite vitesse
4 times a week
Daily
1- 2 / week
By foot
Esplanade Analakely
Irregular
Daily
Irregular
By foot
Local markets worldwide are a thriving business for both rural and urban dwellers, with a steady demand for medicinal plants. To understand the possible benefits for rural harvesters, several factors needed to be taken into account: 1) the cost of transporting goods 2) the frequency of deliveries to the Antananarivo markets 3) the quantity and value of the species transported to the market. Transport costs from rural areas of Antananarivo depended greatly upon the state of the road and mode of transportation and varied from $ 0.45 - $ 1.34 per person transporting plants. The most common mode of transport was carrying plant products “on their backs”, or by hand, from the rural areas to the city market, with costs ranging from $ 0.08 – $ 0.15 per bag. Overall, transportation costs to deliver the goods to the vendors of medicinal plants in the major markets of the city of Antananarivo ranged anywhere from $ 3.39 - $ 8.57 per week. If four bags of medicinal plants (which was the standard weekly amount per vender) were sold at a price of $ 4 - $ 5 per bag, earnings were $ 12 - $ 20 a week. The profit margin ranged from 40 % - 81 %.

Case study: Pauridiantha paucinervis and Mystroxylon aethiopicium

To further analyze the trade value of the medicinal plants in Antananarivo, we used the most used single species, Pauridiantha paucinevris, and a species that was present in most of the mixtures, Mystroxylon aethiopicium for closer analysis.
In the market, Pauridiantha paucinervis was sold packaged in a sealed, labeled bags. We found that package was uniform in all markets. Collectors sold this product to vendors for an average of $ 0.06 per package, and the frequency of deliveries was based on fluctuating demand in the markets. The selling price of the product in the market ranged from $ 0.08 - $ 0.17. Thus, the selling price of this product was double or even triple compared to its purchase price. According to our surveys vendors sold an average of six bags of P. paucinervis each day. Thus, the average earnings for the sale of P. paucinervis amounted to $ 0.50 per day, and the monthly earnings could be upwards of $ 22.50.
Mystroxylon aethiopicium was sold at $ 0.10 - $ 0.20 per package, but this species was only rarely sold alone, but rather was packaged with other herbs to form a tea to treat specific ailments. Sellers bought from collectors once a week, and the order quantity, depending heavily on supply and demand, was often irregular. The purchase price of this species from suppliers was $ 0.03 – $ 0.30, depending on volume. The profit margin of sales was 100 % to 150 % if the plant was sold alone, and even higher if it was combined with other herbs. In the latter case, the sale price varied according to the type of disease and also the amount needed for treatment. Vendors sold an average of 10 packets of M. aethiopicium a day, yielding an average of $ 0.30. The average monthly income for a vendor selling M. aethiopicium was about $10. Therefore, the combined sale of only P. paucinervis and M. aethiopicium averaged a monthly gross income of $25. Considering that the professional monthly minimum wage guarantee in Madagascar is $25, the medicinal plant trade can be considered lucrative. However, given the limited amount of time, and limited number of interviews, we could not elucidate the exact quantity of plant material sold in the markets.

Conclusions

Market studies of non-timber forest products (NFTP) have in the past focused mostly on rural economies and export markets. Recently, increased interest in the domestic marketplace has resulted in more data about economic value of NFTP in the domestic medicinal plant trade. It is difficult to quantify the number of medicinal plants that circulate in the markets of a city like Antananarivo, because this number is highly dependent on market dynamics, which can be quite irregular even for a single plant species. But our estimates show that the sale of medicinal plants in the domestic market provided income for all players - vendors, collectors and harvesters - allowing them to supplement or fully supply their annual income. The impact of these urban traditional markets on the urban and rural economy can be substantial [28]. This booming business has real implications for conservation concerns, which should be researched further to fully explore the impact of the medicinal plant trade on the ecological well-being of the forests where the plants are sourced. Further research and monitoring of the Antananarivo markets will also be invaluable to chart the sustainable use of wild natural resources.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Missouri Botanical Garden and the Plant Biology and Ecology Department at the University of Antananarivo for their support and cooperation while carrying out this research. We thank our supervisors for their valuable advice, encouragement and methodological guidelines. We also thank the vendors in all of the markets of Antananarivo for freely giving their time and knowledge.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://​creativecommons.​org/​licenses/​by/​4.​0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://​creativecommons.​org/​publicdomain/​zero/​1.​0/​) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

All authors designed the study and contributed to writing the manuscript. MNR conducted the interviews and completed the data analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Metadaten
Titel
Medicinal plants sold in the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar
verfasst von
Maria Nirina Randriamiharisoa
Alyse R. Kuhlman
Vololoniaina Jeannoda
Harison Rabarison
Nivo Rakotoarivelo
Tabita Randrianarivony
Fortunat Raktoarivony
Armand Randrianasolo
Rainer W. Bussmann
Publikationsdatum
01.12.2015
Verlag
BioMed Central
Erschienen in
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine / Ausgabe 1/2015
Elektronische ISSN: 1746-4269
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0046-y

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