Background
Neuropsychological conceptualizations of memory
Literature review and analytic methods
Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS group (Yrs) | MA of DS group (Yrs) | Task | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Preschool studies (< 5 years old)
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Milojevich 2015 [54] | MA-matched TD | Bayley- III | M = 2.75 (Range 1- 4) | M = 0.9 |
Visual LTM
Deferred Imitation | DS ~ TD-MA on number of target actions after 1 month delay DS < TD-MA temporal sequence of actions after 1 month delay TD-MA: Familiar target actions > Novel target actions DS: Familiar target actions ~ Novel target actions |
Roberts 2015 [35] | Verbal MA-matched TD | MSEL (Verbal scales) | M= 4 (Range 3-5) | M = 2.8 |
Visual LTM
Deferred Imitation Task Object Location Retention task | DS > TD-Verbal MA DS ~ TD-Verbal MA (Results same when groups matched on nonverbal ability) |
School Age and Adolescent studies (6 to 17 years old)
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Carlesimo 1997 [56] | ID group MA-matched TD | WISC-R or WAIS | M=16 | M = 9.1 |
Verbal and Visual LTM
Word List Learning Story Recall Word Recognition Rey Figure Form B | DS < ID < TD-MA on immediate & delayed recall DS < ID < TD-MA DS < TD-MA; DS~ID on hit rate and false alarms DS < TD-MA; DS~ID on immediate & delayed recall |
Mattson 1999 [59] | TD & FAS | -- | M=12.9 (Range = 9.3-16.0) | -- |
Verbal LTM
Word Recall Word Recognition | DS < FAS < TD DS < FAS < TD |
Dawson 2001 [157] | MA - matched TD & ASD | Preschool Language Scale-3 | M=5.7 | M=2.5 |
Visual LTM
Visual Paired Comparison (5-minute delay) | DS ~ TD-MA DS ~ ASD |
Byrne 2002 [60] | Reading Matched & Average TD Readers | BAS Word Reading | M=8 (Range= 4-12) | M=6.3 |
Visual LTM
Delayed Visual Recall | DS < TD-RM and TD-AR *All 3 groups showed steady progress in their memory abilities. Groups did not significantly differ in amount of progress made over the two years |
Pennington 2003 [9] | MA-matched TD | DAS | M=14 (Range=11-19) | M=4.5 |
Verbal, Spatial, Visual LTM
List Learning Maze Learning task Pattern Recognition Paired Associates Learning Ecological Memory task | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA on some aspects of task; DS~TD-MA on other aspects |
Nichols 2004 [57] | MA-matched TD SLI WS Focal Lesions | WISC-R or WAIS-R | M=15.0 | M=7.9 |
Verbal LTM
CVLT-C | Long Delay Free Recall: DS<TD-MA; DS~WS, SLI Number of Intrusions: DS > TD-MA, FL Recognition Memory/Discriminability: DS < TD-MA; DS~WS, SLI |
Bird 2004 [158] | NVMA-matched TD | SB | M=16.4 (Range=12 -20) | M=5.4 |
Verbal LTM
Immediate & Delayed Story Recall (with embedded novel, nonsense words) | DS<TD-NVMA on immediate not delayed verbatim story recall (which included nonsense words) |
Vicari 2005 [62] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=16 (Range=8-30) | M=5.3 |
Visual and Spatial LTM
Visual-Object Learning Visual-Spatial Learning | DS < TD-MA DS ~ TD-MA |
Jarrold, 2007 [55] | WS group TD | Not matched | M=13 (Range=10-16) | M=5.3 |
Verbal and Visual LTM
People Test – verbal recall Shapes Test – visual recall | DS ~ TD DS < TD; DS~WS |
Visu-Petra 2007 [120] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=14 (Range=8-21) | M=5.75 |
Visual & Spatial LTM
Delayed Match to Sample Paired Associates Learning Number of Stages Completed Spatial Recognition Memory | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA |
Edgin 2010 [25] | IQ-matched WS group | WASI | M=17.8 | -- |
Verbal and Visual LTM
NEPSY List Learning CANTAB Paired Associates Number of Stages Completed | DS > WS DS > WS |
Heimann 2016 [61] | TD, Language- matched ASD | -- | M=5.25 (SD=1.03) | M=2.63 (SD=.72) |
Visual LTM
Deferred Imitation | DS ~ TD DS > ASD |
Adult and Older adult studies (18 years and older)
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Dalton 1974 [159] | Young and Old ID group | -- | Young M= 20.9 Intermediate M=41.7 Old M= 50.8 (Range=19-58) | -- |
Visual LTM
Delayed Matching to Sample | Young DS < Young & Old ID; Young DS = Intermediate DS Intermediate DS < Old ID; Intermediate DS = Young ID Old DS < all other DS and ID groups |
Varnhagen 1987 [64] | IQ-matched ID group | SB | M=22.70 (Range=19-25) | M=4.78 |
Verbal LTM
Lexical Access – a measure of lexical LTM access derived from verbal measures | DS < ~ ID (p=.06) |
Ellis 1989 [160] | TD group (matched roughly on CA) | -- | M=26.8 (Range=14-51) | -- |
Visual LTM
Picture Recall Picture Location Recall | DS < TD college students DS < TD college students |
Devenny 1992 [161] | ID < 35 ID > 35 | - | Young DS M=31.7 Old DS M=41.8 | - |
Verbal LTM
Selective Reminding Test | Both TD and DS participants showed no significant change in performance from Time 1 to Time 2 |
Brugge 1994 [63] | CA-matched ID group | -- | M=31 (Range=22-51) | -- |
Verbal LTM
CVLT | DS<ID on various scores CVLT Short Delay Savings score predictive of group. DS performance inversely related to age |
Simon 1995 [70] | IQ-matched ID & CA-matched TD | -- | M=30 | -- |
Verbal and Visual LTM
Word Recall Facial Recognition Picture Recall | DS < TD-CA; DS~ID DS ~ ID; DS<TD-CA DS < ID & TD-CA |
Devenny 1996 [65] | Young DS (CA 30-39) Middle-Aged DS (CA 40-49) Old DS (CA 50+) ID group with similar IQ & Age | Subtests of WISC-R were used to estimate IQ | Young DS M=37 Middle-Aged DS M=45 Older DS M=55 | - |
Verbal LTM
Selective Reminding Test (SRT)– word recall |
Participants were tested at 6 time points across 5 years
DS: Less improvement than ID on repeated testing Young DS ~ Improvement on SRT across time points Middle-Aged and Older DS ~ Decrease in SRT across time points *Note: This study focused on a more mildly impacted subgroup of adults with DS |
Dulaney 1996 [71] | CA- matched TD; ID | -- | M=33.6 (SD=6.8) | -- |
Visual & Spatial LTM
Picture Recognition Spatial Location Recall of pictures | DS < TD-CA; DS ~ ID DS < TD-CA; DS ~ ID |
Vicari 2000 [36] | MA-matched TD | SB | M= 21 | M=6.5 |
Verbal and Visual LTM
Word Recall Picture Recognition Spatial Sequence Learning | DS <TD-MA on word recall; DS > TD-MA on false alarms DS < TD-MA on picture recognition; DS > TD-MA on false alarms DS > TD-MA on number of trials to learn sequence *higher number of trials indicates worse performance |
Krinsky-McHale 2005 [162] | IQ Matched WS ID | M=44.36 (SD=5.56) |
Verbal LTM
Selective Reminding Task | For both DS and WS, number of words recalled decreased with age; not observed in ID group | ||
Davis 2014 [67] | MA-matched TD and ID | Leiter-Revised Brief Form & KBIT-2 | M~18 | M=5.0 |
Spatial LTM
Route Learning Recall | DS< TD-MA & ID |
Purser 2015 [69] | WS group TD group (similar mental age) | -- | M=18 (Range=10-39) | -- |
Visual Spatial LTM
Route Learning Task – Errors | DS > TD & WS (errors) |
Lavenex 2015 [68] | NV MA-matched TD | Leiter-Revised | M=18.8 (Range=11-29) | M=5.3 |
Spatial LTM
Allocentric Spatial Memory Task | DS<TD-MA |
Within DS Group Comparisons of Older Adults
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Haxby 1989 [163] | 35+ DS (4 with dementia) Under 35 DS | -- | Under 35 M=26 35+ non-demented M=48 35+ demented M=57 | Under 35 M= 6.1 35+ non-demented M=4.3 35+ demented M=2.5 |
Visual LTM
Hidden Object Memory Recognition for Designs | 35+ Non-demented DS < Under 35 DS; demented DS not compared All 35+ DS (demented & non-demented) < Under 35 DS |
Alexander 1997 [66] | Young DS (CA 22-38) Old DS without dementia (CA 41-61) | -- | Young DS M=30.1 Old DS M=47.4 | Young DS M=5.7 Old DS M=4.7 |
Visual LTM
Hidden Object Memory (10-second delay) Hidden Object Memory (2-minute delay) | Old DS < Young DS Old DS < Young DS |
Crayton 1998 [72] | Young DS (CA Under 40) Middle-Aged DS (CA 40-49) Older DS (CA 50+) | -- | -- | M =4.8 (for whole group on BPVS) |
Visual and Spatial LTM
Pattern Recognition Spatial Recognition Delayed Associative learning | Young DS ~ Middle-Aged DS ~ Older DS Middle Aged DS < Young DS Older DS < Young DS |
Hon 1998 [73] | Young DS (CA 30-44) Old DS (CA 45-65) - 10 with AD | -- | Overall M=42.6 | -- |
Verbal and Visual LTM
Rivermead - Name Learning Rivermead - Face Learning Rivermead - Route Learning Rivermead- Story Recall | Old DS < Young DS Old DS < Young DS Old DS < Young DS Old DS < Young DS |
Dalton 1999 [164] | Young DS (CA 17-39) Old DS (CA 40-58) | -- | -- | -- |
Visual LTM
Matching to Sample (25 second delay) | Old DS < Young DS |
Krinsky-McHale 2002 [18] | DS with dementia (DS+DAT) DS without Dementia (DS) |
DS+DAT
Females M=52.23 Males M-45.32
DS
Females M=42.06 Males M=44.36 | -- |
Verbal LTM
Selective Reminding Test (word list recall) | DS+DAT greater decline in performance over 3 years relative to DS Older DS+DAT & DS greater decline in performance over 3 years than Younger DS & DS+DAT | |
Devenny 2002 [165] | -- | -- | DS no DAT=47.3, DS DAT= 54.8 | -- |
Visual LTM
Cued Recall Task | DS DAT < DS no DAT |
Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS Group (Yrs) | MA of DS Group | Tasks | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Valencia-Naranjo 2017 [83] | CA & MA-matched FXS | K-BIT | M=4.29 | -- |
Verbal and Visual STM
1
Story Recall Object Recall | DS< FXS DS< FXS |
School Age and Adolescent Studies (6 to 17 years old)
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Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS Group (Yrs) | MA of DS Group | Tasks | Findings |
Dodd 1975 [166] | ID | -- | M=9.1 | -- |
Verbal STM
Real & Nonsense Word Discrimination (0, 15, and 30 second delays) | DS>ID - Recognition on 0 and 30 sec delay; DS<ID Recall on 15 and 30 sec delay |
McDade 1980 [167] | CA-matched TD MA-matched TD | SB | M~10 | Range= 3.5 – 5.5 |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall Verbal Recognition Test (forced choice recognition on a word recall task) | DS < TD-MA < TD-CA DS < TD-CA; DS ~ TD-MA |
Strattford 1982 [168] | TD & ID | SB & PPVT | M=10.6 (SD=3.92) | M=4.9 | Visual STM Immediate design reproduction | DS < TD; DS~ID |
Snart 1982 [169] | ID group & IQ-matched TBI | SB WISC-R | M=16.3 DS & control (Range = 9-22) | -- |
Verbal STM
Auditory Serial Recall | DS< ID and TBI on successive auditory recall factor score |
Marcell 1988 [170] | VMA-matched TD ID group | PPVT | M=16.75 | M=4.89 |
Verbal STM
Digit Span – Auditory Freefield (traditional) Auditory presentation with headphones Auditory presentation with participants wearing goggles (to reduce distraction)
Visual/Verbal STM
Digits presented visually, recalled orally | DS< TD-MA, ID DS< TD-MA, ID DS< TD-MA, ID DS~ TD-MA, ID |
Bower 1994 [88] | IQ and CA matched ID | -- | Range=5-18 | M=4.6 |
Verbal STM
Digit Recall Sentence Recall | DS < ID DS < ID |
Kay-Raining 1994 [171] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=14 |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall | DS < TD-MA | |
Wang 1994 [89] | IQ & CA matched WS group | WISC-R | M=15.4 | -- |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Digit Span Corsi Block Recall | DS < WS DS > WS |
Cornish 1999 [95] | CA-matched TD, MA-matched TD, FXS | -- | M=10.82 (SD=1.89) | M=5.10 (SD=1.21) |
Visual STM
K-ABC Spatial Memory Task | DS < FXS, TD-CA& TD-MA |
Munir 2000 [58] | MA-matched TD, CA-matched TD and FXS | BPVS | M= 11.17 (2.49) | M=6.09 |
Verbal & Visual STM
Children’s Nonword Repetition Task WISC-III Forward Digit Span Kaufman Spatial Location Recall | DS >FXS; DS ~ TD-MA & TD-CA DS ~ FXS; DS <TD-MA & TD-CA DS > FXS; DS < TD MA & TD-CA |
Seung 2000 [26] | NVMA-matched TD MLU controls | SB NV subtests for NVMA TD group | M=16.4 (Range=9-24) | M=5.58 |
Verbal STM
ITPA Forward Digit Span Length | DS < TD-NVMA DS ~ MLU |
Kanno 2002 [172] | TD (with similar MA) | -- | M=16.10 (SD=1.64) | M=6.02 |
Verbal STM
Serial Recall of words | DS < TD-MA |
Jarrold 2002 [49] | ID group VMA-matched TD | BPVS | M=14.28 (Range=8-17) | M=5.09 |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Digit Span Recall +/- visual support Corsi Span Recall | DS < Combined ID & TD-VMA comparison group DS ~ Combined ID & TD-VMA comparison group |
Laws 2002 [147] | VMA-matched TD | BPVS-II | M=11.1 (Range=7-17) | M=4.0 |
Verbal, Visual, & Spatial STM
Digit Span Recall Corsi Span Recall Color Memory | DS < TD-VMA DS > TD-VMA DS< TD-VMA on focal colors DS ~ TD-VMA on non-focal colors |
Byrne 2002 [60] | Reading Matched TD Average readers TD | BAS Word Reading | M=8 | M=6.3 |
Verbal & Visual STM
BAS Digit Recall BAS Immediate Visual Recall | DS < TD-RM < TD-AR DS < TD-RM & TD-AR |
Eadie 2002 [127] | SLI group TD group matched on MLU | -- | M=7.2 | -- |
Verbal STM
Sentence repetition | DS < TD-MLU; DS ~ SLI |
Pennington 2003 [9] | MA-matched TD | DAS | M=14 (Range=11-19) | M=4.5 |
Verbal STM
Digit Recall | DS <TD-MA |
Vicari 2004 [96] | MA-matched TD; MA & CA matched WS | SB | M=13.4 (SD=4.4) | M=5.2 |
Verbal & Visual STM
Digit Forward Span Test Spatial Forward Span Test | DS < WS; DS < TD-MA DS ~ WS; DS < TD-MA |
Lanfranchi 2004 Study 1 [115] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=11.75 (Range = 7-16) | M=5.42 |
Verbal STM
Word Span Recall | DS < TD-MA |
Lanfranchi 2004 Study 2 [115] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=14.5 (Range= 11-18) | M=4.5 |
Visual STM
Memory for Positions Pathway Forwards (recall of sequenced moves) | DS ~ TD-MA DS ~ TD-MA |
Seung 2004 [174] | MA-matched TD, MLU | -- | M=17.1 (SD=4.4) | M=5.8 |
Verbal STM
SB Sentence memory subtest | DS < TD MA DS ~ MLU |
Fidler 2005 [173] | NV IQ-matched ID | K-BIT | M=13.25 (Range=7-21) | --- |
Verbal STM
Number Sequential Recall | DS<ID |
Brock 2005 [175] | TD group Groups similar on BPVS, though not explicitly matched | -- | M=17.6 (Range=8-25) | M=7.1 |
Verbal STM
Digit Span recall Digit Reconstruction recall (pointing to numbers) | DS<TD DS<TD |
Cairns 2005 [176] | VMA-matched TD | BPVS | M=15.43 (Range=12-19) | M=5.16 |
Verbal STM
Word & Nonword Repetition Digit Span Recall | DS<TD-VMA DS<TD-VMA |
Hick 2005 [177] | NVMA-matched SLI NVMA-matched TD | Leiter | M=9.75 | M=4.5 |
Verbal & Visual STM
Digit Span Recall Word Span Recall Pattern Recall | DS < TD-NVMA, DS ~SLI DS < TD-NVMA, DS ~ SLI DS~SLI~TD-NVMA Verbal STM Tasks – SLI made progress over time that was not seen in DS |
Vicari 2006 [178] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=15.83 (SD=5.66) | M=5.16 |
Visual & Spatial STM
Spatial Location Span Visual Span | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA |
Visu-Petra 2007 [120] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=14 (R=8-21) | M=5.75 |
Spatial STM
CANTAB Spatial Span Task | DS ~ TD-MA (TD-MA> DS trend) |
Keller-Bell 2007 [179] | NVMA-matched TD | Columbia Mental Maturity Scale | M=9.40 (Range=5-12) | M=4.65 |
Verbal STM
Nonword Repetition task | DS < TD-NVMA |
Lanfranchi, 2009 [142] | MA-matched TD | PPVT-Revised and RCM | M=12.5 (Range=7-17) | M=6.0 |
Visual STM
Pathway Recall Positions Recall | DS ~ TD-MA DS < TD-MA |
Frenkel 2009 [87] | MA-matched TD | K-ABC | M=12 (Range=6-17) | M=5.01 |
Verbal, & Spatial STM
Auditory Word Span Task Visual Patterns Task Corsi Block Recall Task | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA DS ~ TD-MA |
Kogan 2009 [97] | FXS group VMA-matched TD CA-matched TD | PPVT- III | M=17.16 (Range=11-36) | M=6.35 |
Visual & Spatial STM
Delayed-non-matching-to-sample Delayed-non-matching-to-position (spatial) | DS~FXS~TD-VMA DS ~ FXS; DS < TD-CA |
Cardoso-Martins 2009 [180] | MA-matched TD | DAS | M=14.48 | -- |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Digit Span Corsi Blocks Recall | DS< TD-MA DS~TD-MA |
Lanfranchi 2009 [117] | VMA matched TD Verbal matched TD | PPVT-R and WPPSI Verbal | M=13.1 (Range=8-19) | M=4.11 |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Word Span Path Recall | DS< TD-VMA & TD-verbal matched DS~TD-VMA & TD-verbal matched |
Abdelhameed 2010 [181] | MA-matched TD | SB-4 | M=9.94 (Range=7-13) | M=3.94 |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall Nonword Repetition | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA on all syllable lengths |
Carretti 2010 [182] | MA-matched TD | PPVT | M=7.6 (SD=2.2) | M=5.2 |
Visual STM
Spatial Recall – Structured Pattern Spatial Recall – Random Pattern | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA |
Edgin 2010 [25] | IQ matched WS group | WASI | M=17.8 (Range=13-23) | -- |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Digit Span Recall Corsi Block Recall | DS<WS DS > WS |
Duarte 2011 [183] | MA-matched TD VMA-TD | PPVT | M=12.5 (Range=7-18) | M=4.0 |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Digit Span Recall Corsi Span Task | DS < TD-MA & TD-VMA DS < TD-MA; DS ~TD-VMA Also manipulated input & output (verbal vs. visual) of information to be recalled in novel tasks & added spatial support to a visual task. Reported that DS group showed similar performance in pure verbal and verbal-visual tasks. DS group did perform better on visual task with additional spatial support. |
Costanzo 2013 [90] | WS group NVMA-matched TD | Leiter-Revised or SB (1 child matched with SB, all others matched on Leiter-R) | M=14.5 (Range=8-21) | M=6.2 |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Digit Span Recall Nonword Repetition Corsi Span Task | DS < WS & TD-NVMA DS < WS & TD- NVMA DS & WS < TD- NVMA; DS ~ WS |
Carney 2013 [92] | WS group TD participants with similar MA | SB Abbreviated Battery | M=14.5 (Range=10-21) | M=6.0 |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Word List Recall Block Recall | DS~WS~TD DS ~ TD; DS & TD> WS DS Group– Visuospatial > Verbal |
Carretti 2013 [94] | VMA-matched TD | PPVT-Revised | M=14.17 (Range=9-17) | M=5.17 |
Spatial STM
Spatial-Sequential Test Spatial-Simultaneous Test | DS ~ TD-VMA DS < TD-VMA |
Lanfranchi 2014 [93] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=15.66 (SD=3.08) | M=5.75 |
Visual STM
Picture Span Recall | DS < TD-MA |
Naess 2015 [85] | NVMA-matched TD | WPPSI Block Design | M=6.32 (Range=5-6) | -- |
Verbal STM
Sentence Memory Nonword Repetition | DS < TD-NVMA DS < TD- NVMA |
Lanfranchi 2015 [184] | MA-matched TD | PPVT-Revised RCM | M=14.17 (Range=9-17) | M=5.17 |
Spatial STM
Patterned Spatial Recall Random Spatial Recall | DS < TD-MA DS ~ TD-MA |
Loveall 2016 [185] | TD & ID with similar NVMA (measured with the Leiter-R) | M=14.91 | M=5.35 |
Verbal STM
Nonword repetition | DS < TD-NVMA & ID group | |
Danielsson 2016 [91] | MA-matched WS MA-matched TD | SB-abbrev. | M=14.6 (Range=10-21) | M=5.9 |
Verbal & Spatial STM
Word List Recall Block Recall | DS ~WS; DS & WS < TD-MA DS >WS; DS ~ TD-MA |
Heimann 2016 [61] | TD Language matched ASD | -- | M=5.25 (SD=1.03) | M=2.63 |
Visual STM
Immediate Elicited Imitation | DS > ASD; DS~TD |
Adult and Older adult studies (18 years and older)
| ||||||
Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS Group (Yrs) | MA of DS Group | Tasks | Findings |
Dalton 1974 [159] | Young & Old ID | -- | Young M= 20.9 Intermediate M=41.7 | -- |
Verbal STM
Digit Span | Young & Intermediate DS < Old ID |
Thase 1984 [186] | ID | -- | M=37.1 (SD=10.4) | -- |
Verbal & Visual STM
Digit Span Delayed Matching to Sample | DS < ID DS < ID |
Huang 1987 [109] | CA & MA matched ID | -- | M=38.65 | -- |
Verbal & Visual STM
Digit Span Picture recall | DS ~ ID Adults with DS were more likely to recall a picture in a series of black and white pictures orally if it was in color. |
Varnhagen 1987 [64] | CA & IQ matched ID group | SB | M=22.70 (Range=19-25) | M=4.78 |
Verbal STM
Auditory Span Recall | DS~ID, but DS group had marginally worse lexical access and did not demonstrate acoustic similarity effect seen in ID group |
Marcell 1988 [84] | ID group VMA-matched TD | PPVT | M=18.12 | M=4.98 |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall (with presentation [auditory vs. visual] and recall [oral vs. manual] differences) | DS< TD-VMA; DS~ID on overall performance collapsed across conditions DS< ID on auditory recall (collapsed across output conditions) TD-VMA & ID: Auditory > Visual Performance DS: Auditory ~ Visual Performance |
Marcell 1992 [187] | IQ-matched ID group | SB | M=18.84 | -- |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall Sentence Recall | DS < ID DS < ID |
Devenny 1992 [161] | ID < 35 ID > 35 | -- | <35 M=31.7 >35 M=41.8 | -- |
Visual STM
Visual Memory Test | >35 DS showed greater decreases in performance at 5 and 10 second delays compared to their performance at 0 second delays than any other participant group |
Marcell 1995 [188] | CA & IQ matched ID | SB | M = 18.83 (SD=3.33) | -- |
Verbal STM
Sentence Repetition Digit Span | DS < ID on number of sentences repeated and number of words recalled across sentences DS < ID |
Devenny 1996 [65] | Young DS (CA 30-39) Middle-Aged DS (CA 40-49) Older DS (CA 50+) ID group with similar IQ & Age | Subtests of WISC-R used to estimate IQ | Young DS M=37 Middle-Aged DS M=45 Older DS M=55 |
Visual LTM
Delayed Match to Sample |
Participants tested at 6 time points across 5 years
DS~ID, but DS showed decrements with increased delay Young ~ Middle-Aged ~ Older DS *Note: This study focused on a more mildly impacted subgroup of adults with DS | |
Vicari 2000 [36] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=21 | M=6.5 |
Verbal & Visual STM
Word List Recall Word Recognition Picture Recognition | DS<TD-MA DS<TD-MA DS<TD-MA |
Natsopoulos 2002 [189] | VMA-matched TD | WPPSI-R Information, Vocabulary & Similarities subtest | M=30.6 (Range=19-39) | -- |
Verbal STM
Sentence Repetition | DS < TD-VMA |
Brock 2004 [99] | TD group with similar BPVS MA, but not explicitly matched | -- | M=18.5 (Range=12-25) | M=7.7 |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall Word and Nonword Order & Item Recall Memory | DS < TD DS < TD |
Kittler 2004 [190] | IQ-Matched ID | WAIS-R or SB | M=44.8 | M=6.57 (PPVT-R) |
Verbal STM
Word List Recall | DS < ID on all lists except phonologically similar words; semantic similarity of words reduced DS performance only |
Purser 2005 [107] | TD group with similar NVMA | -- | M=19.78 | M=8.02 |
Verbal & Visual STM
Word List Recall Picture Location Recall | DS < TD DS ~ TD |
Kittler 2006 [102] | IQ and VMA-matched ID group | WAIS-R and PPVT | M=44.3 | M=6.52 |
Verbal STM
Word List Recall | DS < ID |
Kittler 2008 [103] | MA- matched WS and ID group | -- | M=44.7 (SD=7.2) | -- |
Verbal & Visual STM
Digit Span Word Span Corsi Span | DS < WS; DS ~ ID DS < WS & ID DS > ID and DS>~WS (p=.057) |
Jarrold 2009 [191] | TD group with similar NVMA | -- | M=20.82 (Range=14-29) | M=7.33 (PPVT) |
Verbal STM
Serial Recall Serial Recognition | DS < TD DS < TD |
Lee 2010 [98] | VMA-matched TD | PPVT | M=19.18 (Range=11-25) | M=6.95 |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall | DS < TD-VMA |
Mosse 2011 [192] | VMA-matched TD | BPVS | M=19.5 (Range=9-28) | -- |
Verbal STM
Immediate serial recall | DS < TD-VMA |
Roch 2012 [122] | Reading comprehension matched TD (CAM) | Standardized test of reading comprehension (administered collectively) | M~18.5 (Range=11-26) | -- |
Verbal STM
Sequential word recall Sequential word recall with visual presentation | DS < TD-CAM DS ~ TD-CAM |
Michael 2012 [193] | VMA-matched TD | PPVT-4th Edition | M=18.9 (Range=11-32) | -- |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall Word Span Recall Sentence Memory Nonverbal Digit Span Recall Nonverbal Word Span Recall Nonverbal Spatial Memory (*Nonverbal tasks involved pointing to answers on page) | DS~TD-VMA DS~ TD-VMA DS< TD-VMA DS~ TD-VMA DS~ TD-VMA DS~TD-VMA |
Purser 2013 [100] | NVMA- matched TD VMA-matched TD | BPVS- II, RCM | M=19.4 (Range=13-26) | M= 7.9 (BPVS-II) |
Verbal STM
Word List recognition | DS < TD-NVMA & TD-VMA |
Smith 2014 [101] | VMA-matched TD | BPVS-II | M=20 (Range=9-30) | -- |
Verbal STM
Word Recall Word Order Recall | DS < TD-VMA DS < TD-VMA |
Belacchi 2014 [108] | NVMA and SES matched TD | RCM | M=18.8 (Range=15-29) | MA~5.5 |
Verbal & Visual STM
Word Recall Spatial-simultaneous Recall | DS< TD-NVMA DS ~ TD-NVMA |
Stavroussi 2016 [104] | CA & VMA ID group | PPVT-R | M=33.92 (Range=26-38) | -- |
Verbal STM
Digit Span Recall | DS ~ ID |
Reid 2017 [105] | Cornelia de Lange Syndrome group (CdLS) | -- | M= 24.38 (SD=5.82) | M=6.29 (BPVS) |
Verbal & Visual STM
Digit Span Corsi Span | DS > CdLS DS > CdLS |
Within DS Group Comparisons of Older Adults
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Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS Group (Yrs) | MA of DS Group | Tasks | Findings |
Haxby 1989 [163] | Under 35 DS 35+ DS (4 with dementia) | -- | Under 35 M=26 (Range=19-34) 35+ non-demented M=48 (Range=37-54) 35+ demented M=57 (Range= 47-64) | Under 35 M= 6.1 35+ non-demented M=4.3 35+ demented M=2.5 (SB used to measure MA) |
Verbal & Visual STM
Digit Span Recall Block Tapping Span Object Pointing Span | 35+ demented < 35+ nondemented & Under 35 35+ demented < Under 35 on Block Tapping Span & Object Pointing Span |
Alexander 1997 [66] | Young DS (CA 22-39) Old DS (CA 40-61) without dementia | -- | Young DS M=30.1 Old DS M=47.4 | Young DS M=5.7 Old DS M=4.7 (SB used to measure MA) |
Verbal & Visual STM
Digit Span Recall Hidden object Memory Recall Block Tapping Span | Old DS ~ Young DS Old DS ~ Young DS Old DS < Young DS |
Crayton 1998 [72] | Young DS (CA Under 40) Middle-Aged DS (CA 40-49) Older DS (CA 50+) | -- | -- | M =4.8 (for whole group on BPVS) |
Visual STM
Matching to Sample | Young DS ~ Middle-Aged DS ~ Older DS |
Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | DS Group CA | DS Group MA | Tasks | Findings |
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School Age and Adolescent studies (6 to 17 years old)
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Vicari 1995 [118] | NVMA-matched TD ID group | Leiter | M=16.6 | M=5.2 |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Backwards Digit Span Backwards Corsi Span | DS< TD-NVMA & ID DS< TD-NVMA & ID |
Munir 2000 [58] | MA-matched TD, CA-matched TD, & FXS | BPVS | M= 11.17 | M=6.09 |
Verbal WM
WISC-III Backward Digit Span | DS > FXS; DS < TD-MA & TD-CA |
Pennington 2003 [9] | MA-matched TD | DAS | M=14 (Range=11-19) | M=4.5 |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Counting Span CANTAB Spatial WM | DS ~ TD-MA DS ~ TD-MA |
Lanfranchi 2004 Study 1 [115] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=11.75 (Range=7-16) | M=5.42 |
Verbal WM
Backward Word Span Selective Word Recall Dual Request Word Recall | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA *As cognitive control required for each task increased, the deficit in DS performance increased as well |
Lanfranchi 2004 Study 2 [115] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=14.5 (Range=11-18) | M=4.5 |
Visual WM
Pathway Backwards Starting Position Selection Dual Request Selective Task | DS ~ TD-MA DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA |
Visu-Petra 2007 [120] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=14.4 (Range=8-21) | M=5.75 |
Spatial WM
CANTAB Visual Spatial Working Memory (recalling hidden items in sequence) | DS ~ TD-MA on strategyTotal Between Errors: DS> TD- MA 4-Box Between Errors: DS~ TD-MA |
Lanfranchi 2009 [117] | VMA-matched TD Verbal MA-matched TD | PPVT-R WPPSI Verbal Scales | M=13.0 (Range=8-19) | M=4.10 |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Selective Span Verbal Double Task Starting Position Selection Visuospatial Double task | DS< TD-Verbal & TD-VMA DS< TD-Verbal & TD-VMA DS~ TD-Verbal & TD-VMA DS< TD-Verbal & TD-VMA |
Lanfranchi, 2009 [142] | MA-matched TD | PPVT-R and RCM | M=12.6 (Range=7-17) | M=6.0 |
Spatial WM
Selective Position Recall Selective Pathway Recall | DS<TD-MA DS~TD-MA |
Edgin 2010 [25] | IQ-matched WS group | WASI | M=17.4 (Range=13-23) | -- |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Backwards Digit Span Backward Corsi Span | DS ~ WS DS ~ WS |
Lanfranchi 2010 [116] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=15.1 (Range=11-18) | M=5.75 |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Verbal Dual task Visuospatial Dual task | DS< TD-MA DS< TD-MA |
Nash 2011 [194] | Comprehension Ability Matched (CAM) TD | BAS-II Single Word Reading Test (RA group) Neale Analysis of Reading Ability II (CAM group) | M=15.5 | Reading age=5.2 Rec. Vocab age=7.0 |
Verbal WM
Working Memory Test Battery for Children | DS < TD-CAM |
Lanfranchi 2012 [119] | VMA-matched TD | PPVT-Revised | M=13.7 (Range=8-23) | M=5.25 |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Selective Word Recall
Verbal Dual task
Verbal/Visuospatial Task
Selective Pathways Recall
Visuospatial Dual Task Visuospatial/Verbal Task | DS < TD-VMA DS < TD-VMA DS < TD-VMA DS ~ TD-VMA DS < TD-VMA DS < TD-VMA |
Borella 2013 [114] | VMA- matched TD | PPVT- Revised | M=14.6 (Range=10-19) | M=5.58 |
Verbal WM
Verbal Dual Task | DS < TD-VMA |
Costanzo 2013 [90] | WS group & NVMA-matched TD | Leiter-Revised (for all but 1 participant who received SB) | M= 14.5 (Range=8-21) | M=6.2 |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Backward Digit Span Backward Corsi Span | DS< TD-NVMA: DS<WS DS< TD-NVMA; DS~WS |
Carney 2013 [92] | TD participants with similar MA | SB Abbreviated Battery | M=13.6 (Range=10 –18) | M=6.0 |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Listening Span Odd One Out - determining odd figure out of 3 figures, then recalling figure position | DS < TD DS < TD |
Trezise 2014 [121] | CA and NVMA-matched ASD+ID and Nonspecific ID | Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability: Spatial Span MA score | M=14.84 (Range=10-18) | M=8.19 |
Verbal & Visual WM
Word Repetition Recognition Line Drawing Recognition | DS < ID; DS~ASD+ID DS < ID; DS~ASD+ID |
Adult and Older adult studies (18 years and older)
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Numminen 2001 [123] | NV IQ-matched ID group | RCM | M=41.8 (Range=38-48) | M=5.03 |
Verbal & Spatial WM
Digit Span Backward Visuospatial Test (recall of patterns) | DS~ID DS~ID |
Roch 2012 [122] | Reading comprehension matched TD (CAM) | Standardized test of reading comprehension (administered collectively) | M~18.5 (Range=11-26) | -- |
Verbal WM
Backward Word Recall Backward word recall with visual support | DS < TD-CAM DS ~ TD-CAM |
Belacchi 2014 [108] | NVMA and SES matched TD | RCM | M=18.8 (Range=15-29) | MA~5.5 |
Verbal & Visual WM
First Word List Recall First Stop Position Recall | DS < TD-NVMA DS = TD-NVMA |
Reid 2017 [105] | Cornelia de Lange Snydrome group (CdLS) | -- | M= 24.38 (SD=5.82) | M=6.29 (BPVS) |
Verbal & Visual WM
Digits Span Backwards Corsi Backwards | DS~CdLS DS~CdLS |