Background
Methods
Study design and setting
Ethics statement
Participants and procedures
Variable | Included | Excluded* | Total |
P
|
---|---|---|---|---|
n = 659 | n = 60 | n = 719 | ||
Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | ||
Age | 29.1 (5.5) | 28.2 (5.7) | 29.1 (5.5) | 0.20 |
Mother’s Hb blood level (g/dL) | 11.1 (1.2) | 10.6 (1.3) | 11.0 (1.2) | 0.02 |
n (%)
|
n (%)
|
n (%)
| ||
Country | <0.001 | |||
Ghana | 287 (43.9) | 10 (17.7) | 297 (41.4) | |
Côte d’Ivoire | 370 (56.3) | 50 (83.3) | 420 (58.6) | |
Education | 0.35 | |||
None | 163 (24.9) | 13 (21.7) | 176 (24.6) | |
Basic | 201 (30.6) | 16 (26.7) | 217 (30.3) | |
Secondary | 170 (25.9) | 22 (36.7) | 192 (26.8) | |
Tertiary | 122 (18.6) | 9 (15.0) | 131 (18.3) | |
Occupation | 0.01 | |||
Housewife | 129 (19.7) | 21 (35.0) | 150 (21.0) | |
Farmer/worker | 133 (20.3) | 6 (10.0) | 139 (19.4) | |
Trader | 160 (24.4) | 10 (16.7) | 170 (23.7) | |
Other | 234 (35.7) | 23 (38.3) | 257 (35.9) | |
Child sex | 0.77 | |||
Male | 332 (50.5) | 31 (52.5) | 363 (50.7) | |
Female | 325 (49.5) | 28 (47.5) | 353 (49.3) | |
Maternal HIV infection | 11 (3.0) | 5 (13.5) | 16 (3.9) | 0.002 |
Antepartum depression | 179 (27.3) | 30 (50.0) | 209 (29.2) | <0.001 |
Antepartum anxiety | 85 (13.0) | 18 (30.0) | 103 (14.4) | <0.001 |
Depression
Anxiety
Potential confounders
Parenting stress (PS)
Statistical analysis
Results
Depressed1
| Anxious2
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Ghana | Côte d’Ivoire | Ghana | Côte d’Ivoire | |
n/N (%) | n/N (%) | n/N (%) | n/N (%) | |
Baseline | 76/287 (26.5) | 103/370 (27.8) | 33/287 (11.5) | 52/369 (14.1) |
3 m | 26/286 (9.1) | 41/328 (12.5) | 17/286 (5.9) | 19/328 (5.8) |
12 m | 18/256 (7.0) | 51/295 (17.3) | 7/256 (2.7) | 26/295 (8.8) |
24 m | 13/215 (6.1) | 7/70 (10.0) | 10/215 (4.7) | 1/70 (1.4) |
Depressed (n = 23) | Non-depressed (n = 249) | p | Anxious (n = 14) | Non-anxious (n = 258) | p | Entire sample (n = 272) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parenting stress at 3 month (36-180)
|
95.3 (14.4)
|
84.2 (14.0)
|
<0.001
|
93.7 (12.4)
|
84.7 (14.3)
|
0.02
|
85.1 (14.3)
|
Parental distress (12-60) |
38.2 (6.2)
|
32.6 (7.4)
|
<0.001
|
38.1 (5.2)
|
32.8 (7.5)
|
0.01
| 33.1 (7.5) |
Parental-child dysfunctional interaction (12-60) |
26.8 (6.1)
|
23.4 (5.0)
|
0.002
| 24.9 (5.9) | 23.6 (5.1) | 0.33 | 23.7 (5.2) |
Difficult child (12-60) | 29.9 (4.6) | 28.1 (4.9) | 0.09 | 29.1 (4.5) | 28.2 (5.0) | 0.48 | 28.3 (4.9) |
Depressed (n = 18) | Non-depressed (n = 232) | p | Anxious (n = 7) | Non-anxious (n = 243) | p | Entire sample (n = 250) | |
Parenting stress at 12 month (36-180)
|
94.1 (15.5)
|
77.1 (16.2)
|
<0.001
|
94.4 (13.2)
|
77.8 (16.6)
|
0.01
|
78.3 (16.7)
|
Parental distress (12-60) |
40.4 (8.2)
|
30.4 (9.0)
|
<0.001
|
42.3 (5.9)
|
30.8 (9.1)
|
0.001
| 31.1 (9.3) |
Parental-child dysfunctional interaction (12-60) |
23.0 (5.9)
|
19.3 (5.4)
|
0.01
| 21.7 (4.3) | 19.5 (5.6) | 0.29 | 19.5 (5.5) |
Difficult child (12-60) |
30.7 (7.3)
|
27.4 (6.5)
|
0.04
| 30.4 (6.2) | 27.5 (6.6) | 0.25 | 27.6 (6.6) |
Depressed (n = 11) | Non-depressed (n = 191) | p | Anxious (n = 7) | Non-anxious (n = 195) | p | Entire sample (n = 202) | |
Parenting stress at 24 month (36-180)
|
82.9 (19.7)
|
71.7 (15.6)
|
0.02
|
85.1 (22.3)
|
71.8 (15.6)
|
0.03
|
72.3 (16.0)
|
Parental distress (12-60) |
35.5 (10.6)
|
25.5 (9.3)
|
<0.001
|
34.1 (11.1)
|
25.8 (9.5)
|
0.008
| 26.2 (9.7) |
Parental-child dysfunctional interaction (12-60) | 18.9 (5.9) | 16.7 (3.9) | 0.07 | 18.0 (7.1) | 16.8 (3.9) | 0.38 | 16.8 (4.0) |
Difficult child (12-60) | 30.4 (7.9) | 29.2 (7.3) | 0.56 | 34.6 (9.1) | 29.0 (7.2) | 0.03 | 29.2 (7.4) |
Depressed (n = 38) | Non-depressed (n = 267) | p | Anxious (n = 16) | Non-anxious (n = 289) | p | Entire sample (n = 305) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parenting stress at 3 month (36-180)
|
92.4 (11.8)
|
85.0 (9.7)
|
<0.001
|
94.9 (15.2)
|
85.4 (9.7)
|
<0.001
|
85.9 (10.2)
|
Parental distress (12-60) |
36.7 (5.8)
|
31.6 (5.2)
|
<0.001
|
37.3 (7.1)
|
32.0 (5.3)
|
<0.001
| 32.2 (5.5) |
Parental-child dysfunctional interaction (12-60) | 26.4 (4.3) | 25.7 (3.6) | 0.31 | 26.6 (4.9) | 25.7 (3.7) | 0.36 | 25.8 (3.7) |
Difficult child (12-60) |
29.7 (5.1)
|
27.6 (4.2)
|
0.005
|
31.0 (6.1)
|
27.7 (4.2)
|
0.01
| 27.9 (4.4) |
Depressed (n = 49) | Non-depressed (n = 232) | p | Anxious (n = 33) | Non-anxious (n = 498) | p | Entire sample (n = 281) | |
Parenting stress at 12 month (36-180)
|
95.8 (10.3)
|
84.2 (8.9)
|
<0.001
|
96.2 (10.7)
|
85.2 (9.5)
|
<0.001
|
86.2 (10.1)
|
Parental distress (12-60) |
38.1 (6.3)
|
30.5 (4.9)
|
<0.001
|
38.7 (6.4)
|
31.2 (5.4)
|
<0.001
| 31.9 (5.9) |
Parental-child dysfunctional interaction (12-60) |
26.6 (3.1)
|
25.7 (2.8)
|
0.04
| 26.5 (3.0) | 25.8 (2.8) | 0.26 | 25.9 (2.9) |
Difficult child (12-60) |
31.3 (5.2)
|
28.0 (3.9)
|
<0.001
|
31.0 (5.2)
|
28.3 (4.2)
|
0.002
| 28.6 (4.3) |
Depressed (n = 6) | Non-depressed (n = 56) | p | Anxious (n = 1) | Non-anxious (n = 61) | p | Entire sample (n = 62) | |
Parenting stress at 24 month (36-180)
|
103.7 (8.5)
|
81.9 (9.8)
|
<0.001
|
118
|
83.5 (10.8)
|
0.002
|
84.0 (11.6)
|
Parental distress (12-60) |
41.4 (4.3)
|
28.9 (5.3)
|
<0.001
|
46
|
30.0 (6.2)
|
0.01
| 30.2 (6.4) |
Parental-child dysfunctional interaction (12-60) |
29.0 (3.7)
|
24.9 (2.5)
|
<0.001
|
34
|
25.2 (2.7)
|
0.002
| 25.3 (2.9) |
Difficult child (12-60) |
33.7 (4.5)
|
28.1 (4.4)
|
0.005
|
38
|
28.5 (4.5)
|
0.04
| 28.6 (4.7) |
Parenting Stress | Depressed N (%) | Non-depressed N (%) | p | Anxious N (%) | Non-anxious N (%) | p | Entire sample N (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3 m |
15 (65.2)
|
75 (30.1)
|
0.001
|
9 (64.3)
|
81 (31.4)
|
0.01
| 90 (33.1) |
12 m |
12 (66.7)
|
49 (21.1)
|
<0.001
|
5 (71.4)
|
56 (23.1)
|
0.003
| 61 (24.4) |
24 m | 3 (27.3) | 27 (14.1) | 0.23 | 2 (28.6) | 28 (14.4) | 0.30 | 30 (14.9) |
Parenting stress | Depressed N (%) | Non-depressed N (%) | p | Anxious N (%) | Non-anxious N (%) | p | Entire sample N (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3 m |
20 (52.6)
|
72 (27.0)
|
0.001
|
11 (68.8)
|
81 (28.0)
|
0.001
| 92 (30.2) |
12 m |
33 (67.4)
|
61 (26.3)
|
<0.001
|
19 (74.1)
|
75 (29.4)
|
<0.001
| 94 (33.5) |
24 m |
6 (100)
|
8 (14.3)
|
<0.001
| 1 (100) | 13 (21.3) | 0.06 | 14 (22.6) |
Ghana (N = 281) | Côte d’Ivoire (N = 120) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef | 95% CI |
P
| Coef | 95% CI |
P
| |
Postnatal depression1
| 8.67 | 4.03, 13.31 | <0.001 | 8.17 | 4.37, 11.98 | <0.001 |
Postnatal anxiety2
| 3.05 | -2.70, 8.80 | 0.30 | 4.87 | -2.53, 12.27 | 0.20 |
Prenatal depression1
| 7.78 | 4.31, 11.25 | <0.001 | 4.41 | 0.20, 8.63 | 0.04 |
Prenatal anxiety2
| -3.34 | -7.97, 1.29 | 0.16 | 3.94 | -1.30, 9.19 | 0.14 |
Anemia (Ref: <11 g/dL) | 3.23 | 0.47, 6.00 | 0.02 | 2.02 | -1.07, 5.11 | 0.20 |
Number of sick child visits | - | - | - | -0.92 | -2.08, 0.23 | 0.12 |
Age | -0.35 | -0.66, -0.04 | <0.001 | - | - | - |
Time | -6.63 | -7.73, -5.53 | <0.001 | 0.84 | -1.15, 2.84 | 0.41 |