Introduction
Early risk factors
Aims
Methods
Participants and procedure
Baseline characteristics and early risk factors
Child characteristics
Prenatal and perinatal factors
Perinatal social factors
Postnatal family factors
Parental psychopathology
Trajectory modeling
Multivariable analyses
Results
Sample characteristics
Characteristica | Population sample (n = 2120) | Study sample (n = 1374) |
---|---|---|
Sex of the child (male), no (%) | 1080 (50.9%) | 647b (47.1%) |
Lifetime methylphenidate use, no (%) | 288 (13.6%) | 238b (17.3%) |
IQ of the child, mean (SD) | 6.20 (3.82) | 6.44b (3.88) |
Family socioeconomic status, mean (SD) | 0.0 (1.0) | 0.68b (1.0) |
Maternal age at birth of first child (years), mean (SD) | 25.8 (4.9) | 25.9 (5.0) |
Mother high school diploma or higher, mean (SD) | 1778 (84.0%) | 1175b (85.5%) |
Mother no high school diploma, no (%) | 339 (16.0%) | 198 (14.4%) |
Intact family, no (%) | 1669 (78.7%) | 1099 (80.0%) |
Non-intact family, no (%) | 443 (20.9%) | 272 (19.8%) |
Hyperactivity–impulsivity (teacher rated, 8 years), mean (SD) | 2.24 (2.63) | 2.14 (2.61) |
Inattention (teacher rated, 8 years), mean (SD) | 3.85 (3.32) | 3.72 (3.34) |
Developmental trajectories of hyperactivity–impulsivity and inattention
Characteristica | Hyperactivity–impulsivity | Inattention | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low (n = 1080) | Chronic (n = 222) | Chronic declining (n = 72) | Low (n = 1097) | Chronic (n = 225) | Chronic declining (n = 52) | |
Sex of the child (male), no (%) | 431 (39.9%) | 170 (76.6%) | 46 (63.9%) | 459 (41.8%) | 152 (59.6%) | 36 (69.2%) |
Lifetime methylphenidate use, no (%) | 115 (10.6%) | 90 (40.5%) | 33 (45.8%) | 85 (7.7%) | 124 (48.6%) | 29 (55.7%) |
IQ of the child, mean (SD) | 6.64 (3.93) | 6.70 (3.66) | 5.67 (3.60) | 6.88 (3.95) | 4.64 (3.06) | 5.0 (3.12) |
Difficult temperament | 2.36 (1.53) | 2.77 (1.54) | 3.59 (1.97) | 2.44 (1.54) | 2.50 (1.65) | 2.90 (2.0) |
Prenatal and perinatal factors | ||||||
Premature birth, no (%) | 43 (4.0%) | 10 (4.5%) | 7 (9.7%) | 43 (3.9%) | 13 (5.8%) | 4 (7.7%) |
Low birthweight, no (%) | 31 (2.9%) | 4 (0.5%) | 5 (6.9%) | 30 (2.7%) | 9 (4.0%) | 1 (1.9%) |
Prenatal tobacco exposure, no (%) | 247 (22.9%) | 71 (32.0%) | 25 (34.7%) | 259 (23.6%) | 68 (30.2%) | 16 (30.8%) |
Prenatal alcohol exposure, no (%) | 33 (3.1%) | 9 (4.1%) | 5 (6.9%) | 35 (3.2%) | 10 (4.4%) | 2 (3.9%) |
Prenatal street drug exposure, no (%) | 10 (0.9%) | 9 (4.1%) | 2 (2.8%) | 12 (1.1%) | 5 (2.2%) | 4 (7.7%) |
Perinatal social factors | ||||||
Non-intact family, no (%) | 193 (17.9%) | 59 (26.6%) | 20 (27.7%) | 200 (18.2%) | 59 (26.2%) | 13 (25.0%) |
Insufficient income, no (%) | 210 (19.4%) | 61 (27.5%) | 10 (13.9%) | 206 (18.8%) | 68 (30.5%) | 17 (32.7%) |
Early motherhood (≤ 21-years), no (%) | 196 (18.1%) | 73 (32.9%) | 23 (31.9%) | 198 (18.0%) | 73 (32.4%) | 21 (40.38%) |
Low maternal education, no (%) | 130 (12.0%) | 52 (23.4%) | 16 (22.2%) | 137 (12.5%) | 52 (23.1%) | 9 (17.3%) |
Low paternal education, no (%) | 153 (14.2%) | 45 (20.3%) | 15 (20.8%) | 160 (14.6%) | 42 (18.7%) | 11 (21.2%) |
Postnatal family factors | ||||||
Family dysfunction, mean (SD) | 1.65 (1.40) | 1.80 (1.53) | 1.82 (1.42) | 1.65 (1.44) | 1.82 (1.31) | 1.76 (1.39) |
Hostile–reactive parenting, mean (SD) | 1.0 (1.17) | 1.20 (1.22) | 1.32 (1.36) | 1.05 (1.18) | 1.06 (1.17) | 1.39 (1.40) |
Over protection, mean (SD) | 4.52 (2.21) | 4.50 (2.19) | 5.02 (2.34) | 4.49 (2.22) | 4.81 (2.16) | 4.61 (2.41) |
Consequential parenting, mean (SD) | 6.96 (1.38) | 6.85 (1.37) | 6.67 (1.39) | 6.96 (1.37) | 6.82 (1.37) | 6.64 (1.64) |
Parental self-efficacy, mean (SD) | 8.99 (0.96) | 8.97 (0.89) | 8.86 (1.0) | 8.97 (0.95) | 9.06 (0.93) | 8.83 (1.07) |
Perceived parental impact, mean (SD) | 8.52 (1.71) | 8.41 (1.76) | 7.76 (2.23) | 8.51 (1.70) | 8.29 (1.95) | 8.26 (1.97) |
Mother–child interaction, mean (SD) | 9.67 (0.73) | 9.71 (0.58) | 9.73 (0.69) | 9.67 (0.72) | 9.78 (0.51) | 9.56 (0.97) |
Parental psychopathology | ||||||
Maternal adolescent antisocial behavior, mean (SD) | 0.75 (0.88) | 1.01 (1.0) | 1.06 (1.07) | 0.78 (0.91) | 0.93 (0.94) | 0.83 (0.95) |
Paternal adolescent antisocial behavior, mean (SD) | 0.65 (0.92) | 0.82 (1.02) | 0.86 (0.82) | 0.65 (0.91) | 0.82 (1.05) | 0.91 (0.96) |
Maternal depression, mean (SD) | 1.27 (1.21) | 1.68 (1.49) | 1.88 (1.56) | 1.30 (1.28) | 1.48 (1.23) | 2.25 (1.60) |
Paternal depression, mean (SD) | 0.99 (0.95) | 1.04 (1.91) | 1.20 (1.29) | 0.98 (0.94) | 1.06 (0.93) | 1.39 (1.37) |
Early risk factors for high hyperactivity–impulsivity and inattention symptom trajectories
Predictors | Hyperactivity–impulsivity | Inattention | Hyperactivity–impulsivity and inattention | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | ||||
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
Sex of the child (male), no (%) |
4.32 (3.04–6.15)
|
4.32 (3.05–6.10)
|
2.56 (1.82–3.60)
|
2.66 (1.90–3.72)
|
4.63 (2.85–7.52)
|
4.78 (2.97–7.69)
|
IQ of the child, mean (SD) |
0.93 (0.89–0.98)
|
0.93 (0.89–0.98)
| 1.0 (0.90–1.11) |
0.84 (0.80–0.86)
| 1.06 (0.93–1.21) |
0.86 (0.80–0.92)
|
Difficult temperament, mean (SD) |
1.19 (1.08–1.32)
|
1.21 (1.09–1.33)
| 0.83 (0.79–0.88) | 0.85 (0.79–0.91) | ||
Prenatal and perinatal factors | ||||||
Premature birth, no (%) | 1.64 (0.78–3.48) | 1.34 (0.61–2.93) | ||||
Low birthweight, no (%) | ||||||
Prenatal tobacco exposure, no (%) | 1.21 (0.80–1.81) | 0.71 (0.46–1.09) | 0.78 (0.45–1.33) | |||
Prenatal alcohol exposure, no (%) |
2.60 (1.18–5.72)
|
2.49 (1.67–5.33)
| 1.42 (0.59–3.39) | 2.38 (0.88–6.39) | ||
Prenatal street drug exposure, no (%) | 1.36 (0.35–5.38) |
3.87 (1.04–14.45)
|
3.80 (1.08–13.35)
| 2.06 (0.43–9.87) | ||
Perinatal social factors | ||||||
Non-intact family, no (%) | 1.42 (0.89–2.23) |
1.55 (1.01–2.39)
| 1.0 (0.63–1.60) | 1.45 (0.83–2.54) | ||
Insufficient income, no (%) | 0.64 (0.40–1.05) | 1.0 (0.63–1.57) | 0.53 (0.29–0.98) | |||
Early motherhood (≤ 21-years), no (%) | 1.28 (0.82–1.99) |
1.73 (1.12–3.66)
|
1.69 (1.14–2.52)
| 1.49 (0.88–5.39) | ||
Low maternal education, no (%) |
2.05 (1.22–3.42)
|
2.34 (1.49–3.68)
| 1.89 (1.14–3.15) |
1.69 (1.05–2.72)
|
2.97 (1.63–5.39)
|
3.04 (1.18–5.06)
|
Low paternal education, no (%) | 1.09 (0.67–1.76) | 0.87 (0.54–1.41) | 1.21 (0.68–2.18) | |||
Postnatal family factors | ||||||
Family dysfunction, mean (SD) | 0.90 (0.79–1.04) | 1.0 (0.87–1.35) | ||||
Hostile–reactive parenting, mean (SD) | 1.04 (0.90–1.21) | 0.98 (0.82–1.18) | ||||
Over protection, mean (SD) | 1.02 (0.94–1.19) | 0.99 (0.89–1.10) | ||||
Consequential parenting, mean (SD) | 0.97 (0.86–1.10) | 0.99 (0.87–1.11) | 0.98 (0.84–1.44) | |||
Parental self-efficacy, mean (SD) | ||||||
Perceived parental impact, mean (SD) | 0.93 (0.81–1.05) | 0.99 (0.89–1.10) | 0.97 (0.85–1.10) | |||
Mother–child interaction, mean (SD) | 1.19 (0.91–1.54) | |||||
Parental psychopathology | ||||||
Maternal adolescent antisocial behavior, mean (SD) | 1.10 (0.91–1.32) | 1.01 (0.84–1.22) | ||||
Paternal adolescent antisocial behavior, mean (SD) | 1.09 (0.91–1.29) | 1.18 (0.99–1.40) | 1.08 (0.87–1.34) | |||
Maternal depression, mean (SD) |
1.25 (1.09–1.44)
|
1.24 (1.10–1.41)
|
1.19 (1.03–1.38)
|
1.19 (1.05–1.35)
|
1.31 (1.11–1.56)
|
1.31 (1.14–1.53)
|
Paternal depression, mean (SD) | 1.11 (0.92–1.33) | 1.04 (0.82–1.32) |