Background
Methods
Study setting and design
Collection of data
Assessment of nutritional status in children
Statistical analysis
Results
Demographic and socio-economic characteristics
Variables | Preschool children (n = 206) | Primary school children (n = 180) | Secondary school children (n = 161) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | 95% CI | Mean | 95% CI | Mean | 95% CI | |
Individual Characteristics | ||||||
Gender (1 = Female, 0 = Male) | 53% | (47% - 60%) | 50% | (43% - 57%) | 55% | (48% - 63%) |
No. of Siblings (1 = > 2, 0 = ≤ 2) | 30% | (24% - 36%) | 28% | (21% - 34%) | 24% | (18% - 31%) |
Birth Order (1 = > 2, 0 = ≤ 2) | 26% | (20% - 32%) | 17% | (11% - 22%) | 15% | (9% - 20%) |
No. of Family members (1 = > 5, 0 = ≤ 5) | 61% | (54% - 67%) | 57% | (49% - 64%) | 53% | (46% - 61%) |
Education and Employment status of parents | ||||||
Father completed secondary education or above (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 27% | (21% - 33%) | 41% | (34% - 49%) | 42% | (35% - 50%) |
Mother completed secondary education or above (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 41% | (34% - 48%) | 41% | (33% - 48%) | 32% | (25% - 40%) |
Father is employed (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 91% | (87% - 95%) | 88% | (83% - 93%) | 96% | (93% - 99%) |
Mother is employed (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 34% | (28% - 41%) | 39% | (32% - 46%) | 36% | (29% - 44%) |
Household Characteristics | ||||||
Type of Dwellings (1 = Attached house, 0 = Separate house) | 79% | (74% - 85%) | 79% | (73% - 85%) | 75% | (68% - 82%) |
No. of Rooms (1 = ≤ 2, 0 = > 2) | 55% | (48% - 62%) | 54% | (47% - 61%) | 46% | (38% - 54%) |
Floor (1 = Cement, 0 = Earthen) | 86% | (81% - 91%) | 86% | (80% - 91%) | 81% | (75% - 87%) |
Wall (1 = Cement, 0 = Wood/mud) | 80% | (74% - 85%) | 86% | (80% - 91%) | 83% | (77% - 89%) |
Roof (1 = Metal laminate, 0 = Board laminate) | 85% | (81% - 90%) | 88% | (83% - 93%) | 88% | (83% - 93%) |
House own latrine (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 66% | (59% - 72%) | 56% | (48% - 63%) | 58% | (50% - 65%) |
Source of drinking water (1 = Treated, 0 = Untreated) | 66% | (59% - 72%) | 69% | (62% - 76%) | 73% | (66% - 80%) |
Monthly income (1 = ≤ 20,000, 0 = > 20,000, Rupees) | 77% | (71% - 83%) | 73% | (66% - 79%) | 77% | (70% - 84%) |
Determinants of child nutritional status
Variables | WAZ | HAZ | BAZ | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normal | Underweight | Normal | Stunting | Normal | Wasting | |
(N = 352) | (n = 195) | (n = 400) | (n = 147) | (n = 367) | (n = 180) | |
Individual Characteristics | ||||||
Gender (1 = Female, 0 = Male) | 197 (56.0%) | 92 (47.8%) | 217 (54.2%) | 72 (49.0%) | 196 (53.4%) | 93 (51.7%) |
No. of Siblings (1 = > 2, 0 = ≤ 2) | 96 (27.3%) | 55 (28.2%) | 112 (28.0%) | 39 (26.5%) | 98 (26.7%) | 53 (29.4%) |
Birth Order (1 = > 2, 0 = ≤ 2) | 71 (20.2%) | 36 (18.5%) | 75 (18.8%) | 32 (21.8%) | 78 (21.3%) | 29 (16.1%) |
No. of Family members (1 = > 5, 0 = ≤ 5) | 200 (56.8%) | 113 (57.9%) | 233 (58.3%) | 80 (54.7%) | 210 (57.2%) | 103 (57.2%) |
Education and Employment status of parents | ||||||
Father completed secondary education or above (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 135 (38.4%) | 65 (33.3%) | 144 (36.0%) | 56 (38.1%) | 139 (37.9%) | 61 (33.9%) |
Mother completed secondary education or above (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 135 (38.4%) | 75 (38.5%) | 146 (36.5%) | 64 (43.5%) | 155 (42.2%) | 55 (30.6%) |
Father is employed (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 322 (91.5%) | 179 (91.8%) | 367 (91.8%) | 134 (91.2%) | 338 (92.1%) | 163 (90.6%) |
Mother is employed (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 141 (40.1%) | 58 (29.7%) | 142 (35.5%) | 57 (38.8%) | 148 (40.3%) | 51 (28.3%) |
Household Characteristics | ||||||
Type of Dwellings (1 = Attached house, 0 = Separate house) | 276 (78.4%) | 151 (77.4%) | 318 (79.5%) | 109 (74.1%) | 283 (77.1%) | 144 (80.0%) |
No. of Rooms (1 = ≤ 2, 0 = > 2) | 182 (51.7%) | 103 (52.8%) | 200 (50.0%) | 85 (57.8%) | 197 (53.7%) | 88 (48.9%) |
Floor (1 = Cement, 0 = Earthen) | 301 (85.5%) | 160 (82.1%) | 343 (85.8%) | 118 (80.3%) | 305 (83.1%) | 156 (86.7%) |
Wall (1 = Cement, 0 = Wood/mud) | 293 (83.2%) | 159 (81.5%) | 333 (83.3%) | 119 (81.0%) | 302 (82.3%) | 150 (83.3%) |
Roof (1 = Metal laminate, 0 = Board laminate) | 302 (85.8%) | 174 (89.2%) | 348 (87.0%) | 128 (87.1%) | 316 (86.1%) | 160 (88.9%) |
House own latrine (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 205 (58.2%) | 123 (63.1%) | 244 (61.0%) | 84 (57.1%) | 223 (60.8%) | 105 (58.3%) |
Source of drinking water (1 = Treated, 0 = Untreated) | 114 (32.4%) | 57 (29.2%) | 127 (31.8%) | 44 (29.9%) | 116 (31.6%) | 55 (30.6%) |
Monthly income (1 = ≤ 20,000, 0 = > 20,000 Rupees) | 268 (76.1%) | 146 (74.9%) | 302 (75.5%) | 112 (76.2%) | 269 (77.3%) | 145 (80.6%) |
Nutritional status | Pre school | Primary school | Secondary school |
p value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Children (n = 206) | children (n = 180) | children (n = 161) | ||
Underweight (< −2SD WAZ) | 68 (33.0%) | 88 (48.9%) | 39 (24.2%) | < 0.001* |
Stunted (< −2SD HAZ) | 57 (27.7%) | 52 (28.9%) | 38 (23.6%) | 0.518 |
Wasted (< −2SD BAZ) | 52 (25.2%) | 68 (37.8%) | 60 (37.3%) | 0.012* |
Overweight (> 2SD WAZ) | 3 (1.5%) | 5 (2.8%) | 7 (4.3%) | 0.242 |
Obese (> 2SD BAZ) | 5 (2.4%) | 5 (2.8%) | 7 (4.3%) | 0.548 |
Mean WAZ score | −1.54 (1.15) | −2.01 (0.96) | −1.76 (0.34) | < 0.001* |
Mean HAZ score | −1.05 (1.53) | −1.42 (0.92) | −1.29 (0.78) | 0.006* |
Mean BAZ score | −1.30 (1.17) | −1.67 (1.01) | −1.96 (0.87) | < 0.001* |
Risk factors of child nutritional status
Variables | Underweight | Stunting | Wasting | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) |
p value | OR (95% CI) |
p value | OR (95% CI) |
p value | |
Individual Characteristics | ||||||
Female | 2.89 (1.50–5.55) | 0.001* | 2.75 (1.39–5.45) | 0.004* | 1.58 (0.78–3.21) | 0.207 |
More than 2 siblings | 1.50 (0.57–3.93) | 0.412 | 1.39 (0.51–3.79) | 0.517 | 3.16 (1.11–8.97) | 0.031* |
More than 2 birth Order | 3.11 (0.73–13.35) | 0.127 | 2.23 (0.50–10.19) | 0.303 | 6.39 (1.23–33.08) | 0.027* |
More than five family members | 1.03 (0.53–2.01) | 0.938 | 1.08 (0.54–2.17) | 0.832 | 1.60 (0.79–3.26) | 0.195 |
Education and Employment status of parents | ||||||
Father completed secondary education or above | 0.42 (0.18–0.97) | 0.041 | 0.54 (0.24–1.25) | 0.153 | 0.75 (0.32–1.75) | 0.501 |
Mother completed secondary education or above | 0.53 (0.27–1.08) | 0.079 | 0.71 (0.33–1.51) | 0.374 | 0.62 (0.30–1.24) | 0.175 |
Employed father | 1.96 (0.51–6.51) | 0.324 | 5.61 (0.96–31.08) | 0.058 | 0.45 (0.13–1.59) | 0.215 |
Employed mother | 2.12 (1.05–4.28) | 0.037* | 1.40 (0.68–2.86) | 0.361 | 2.12 (1.05–4.28) | 0.037* |
Household Characteristics | ||||||
Attached houses | 0.76 (0.33–1.73) | 0.506 | 1.16 (0.51–2.63) | 0.730 | 0.69 (0.27–1.55) | 0.438 |
One/two rooms in a household | 0.97 (0.52–1.86) | 0.900 | 0.96 (0.82–2.90) | 0.064 | 0.82 (0.41–1.68) | 0.590 |
Cement floor | 0.88 (0.35–2.32) | 0.791 | 1.74 (0.62–4.88) | 0.293 | 0.88 (0.32–2.44) | 0.800 |
Cement wall | 0.79 (0.35–1.80) | 0.576 | 0.49 (0.21–1.19) | 0.118 | 0.79 (0.32–1.91) | 0.593 |
Metal laminate roof | 0.69 (0.22–2.17) | 0.522 | 1.62 (0.59–4.42) | 0.348 | 0.78 (0.28–2.18) | 0.634 |
House own latrine | 1.13 (0.57–2.23) | 0.740 | 0.84 (0.41–1.72) | 0.639 | 0.65 (0.31–1.37) | 0.262 |
Drinking treated water | 0.94 (0.47–1.87) | 0.860 | 1.69 (0.83–3.42) | 0.145 | 1.07 (0.52–2.28) | 0.816 |
Less than Rs 20,000 monthly income (USD 133) | 1.87 (0.83–4.17) | 0.128 | 1.25 (0.55–2.81) | 0.594 | 0.63 (0.68–1.25) | 0.066 |
Variables | Underweight | Stunting | Wasting | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) |
p value | OR (95% CI) |
p value | OR (95% CI) |
p value | |
Individual Characteristics | ||||||
Female | 0.71 (0.37–1.34) | 0.287 | 0.45 (0.22–0.93) | 0.031 | 1.25 (0.63–2.47) | 0.525 |
More than two Siblings | 1.28 (0.61–2.69) | 0.523 | 1.10 (0.48–2.51) | 0.823 | 0.89 (0.40–1.96) | 0.887 |
More than two birth Order | 1.43 (0.39–5.14) | 0.590 | 2.46 (0.59–10.29) | 0.216 | 2.71 (0.67–10.90) | 0.160 |
More than five family members | 2.31 (1.13–4.74) | 0.022* | 1.57 (0.71–3.48) | 0.263 | 0.78 (0.36–1.63) | 0.492 |
Education and Employment status of parents | ||||||
Father completed secondary education or above | 0.74 (0.38–1.45) | 0.380 | 0.74 (0.36–1.52) | 0.403 | 0.64 (0.32–1.32) | 0.228 |
Mother completed secondary education or above | 1.32 (0.64–2.72) | 0.448 | 0.69 (0.32–1.48) | 0.341 | 0.33 (0.15–0.72) | 0.005* |
Employed father | 0.67 (0.23–1.94) | 0.457 | 0.50 (0.17–1.47) | 0.207 | 0.50 (0.15–1.64) | 0.253 |
Employed mother | 2.03 (1.02–3.63) | 0.045* | 1.20 (0.57–2.56) | 0.630 | 4.09 (1.86–9.00) | 0.001* |
Household Characteristics | ||||||
Attached house | 1.57 (0.68–3.62) | 0.287 | 2.22 (0.96–5.11) | 0.062 | 0.56 (0.23–1.41) | 0.217 |
One/two Rooms in a household | 2.15 (1.11–4.15) | 0.023 | 1.26 (0.62–2.55) | 0.517 | 1.56 (0.79–3.09) | 0.200 |
Cement Floor | 1.07 (0.42–2.72) | 0.892 | 1.42 (0.52–3.87) | 0.502 | 0.85 (0.38–2.22) | 0.578 |
Cement Wall | 1.96 (0.74–5.21) | 0.178 | 1.30 (0.48–3.54) | 0.605 | 1.99 (0.73–5.39) | 0.174 |
Metal laminate roof | 0.59 (0.22–1.66) | 0.323 | 0.86 (0.29–2.53) | 0.789 | 0.41 (0.12–1.29) | 0.128 |
House own latrine | 1.94 (0.99–3.81) | 0.054 | 0.79 (0.36–1.52) | 0.408 | 0.72 (0.35–1.41) | 0.217 |
Drinking treated water | 1.14 (0.77–1.69) | 0.518 | 1.12 (0.73–1.71) | 0.601 | 1.06 (0.71–1.59) | 0.756 |
Less than Rs 20,000 monthly income (USD 133) | 1.90 (0.93–3.88) | 0.078 | 2.51 (1.08–5.82) | 0.032* | 1.29 (0.61–2.71) | 0.500 |
Variables | Underweight | Stunting | Wasting | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) |
p value | OR (95% CI) |
p value | OR (95% CI) |
p value | |
Individual Characteristics | ||||||
Female | 1.16 (0.46–2.91) | 0.752 | 1.75 (0.67–4.59) | 0.256 | 0.75 (0.32–1.80) | 0.525 |
More than two siblings | 2.13 (0.75–6.04) | 0.156 | 1.13 (0.42–3.03) | 0.814 | 1.15 (0.47–2.83) | 0.758 |
More than two birth Orde | 0.45 (0.08–2.28) | 0.332 | 1.07 (0.19–6.01) | 0.935 | 3.92 (0.74–5.79) | 0.109 |
More than five family members | 2.93 (1.15–7.41) | 0.024* | 0.75 (0.29–1.98) | 0.566 | 1.93 (0.84–4.43) | 0.122 |
Education and Employment status of parents | ||||||
Father completed secondary education or above | 0.79 (0.33–1.89) | 0.602 | 2.29 (0.94–5.58) | 0.068 | 0.33 (0.15–0.76) | 0.009* |
Mother completed secondary education or above | 1.65 (0.65–4.18) | 0.291 | 1.26 (0.52–3.05) | 0.608 | 1.65 (0.65–4.18) | 0.291 |
Employed father | 0.93 (0.33–2.63) | 0.889 | 1.45 (0.55–3.87) | 0.488 | 0.37 (0.14–0.99) | 0.046 |
Employed mother | 0.79 (0.33–7.91) | 0.090 | 1.95 (0.81–4.66) | 0.136 | 1.11 (0.49–2.45) | 0.805 |
Household Characteristics | ||||||
Attached house | 1.24 (0.43–3.56) | 0.689 | 0.65 (0.21–2.04) | 0.462 | 1.39 (0.50–3.85) | 0.531 |
One/two rooms in a household | 0.64 (0.28–1.43) | 0.278 | 0.91 (0.39–2.09) | 0.823 | 1.77 (0.82–3.84) | 0.149 |
Cement Floor | 1.95 (0.76–4.98) | 0.164 | 0.37 (0.09–1.47) | 0.151 | 0.44 (0.16–1.21) | 0.114 |
Cement Wall | 1.05 (0.37–2.96) | 0.931 | 2.65 (0.97–6.98) | 0.055 | 0.51 (0.18–1.45) | 0.206 |
Metal laminate Roof | 0.57 (0.15–2.22) | 0.415 | 1.14 (0.26–4.98) | 0.855 | 1.46 (0.43–4.90) | 0.542 |
House own latrine | 1.89 (0.75–4.74) | 0.179 | 1.00 (0.41–2.45) | 1.000 | 1.48 (0.64–3.41) | 0.361 |
Drinking treated water | 1.15 (0.46–2.89) | 0.764 | 1.27 (0.50–3.23) | 0.613 | 1.25 (0.53–2.94) | 0.604 |
Less than Rs 20,000 monthly income (USD 133) | 2.90 (1.05–8.06) | 0.040* | 1.32 (0.48–3.64) | 0.587 | 0.72 (0.26–1.88) | 0.704 |