Introduction
Literature review
Theoretical framework
Opportunistic behaviour and monitoring in the relationship between player and agent
Monitoring influencing factors
Method
Sample
% | % | % | % | % | M | SD | N | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bundesliga | 2. Bundesliga | 3. Liga | Regionalliga | |||||
Control variables | ||||||||
Age | – | – | – | – | – | 25.63 | 4.23 | 336 |
Performance level | 13.7 | 30.1 | 21.1 | 35.1 | – | – | – | 336 |
Search criteria (5-point Likert scale; 1 = not relevant at all, 5 = very relevant) | ||||||||
– | 1 | – | – | – | 5 | – | – | – |
Recommendation club | 48.0 | 15.8 | 21.1 | 10.1 | 5.0 | 2.08 | 1.24 | 279 |
Recommendation player(s) | 17.4 | 12.8 | 26.0 | 32.0 | 11.8 | 3.08 | 1.27 | 281 |
Recommendation parents | 29.7 | 10.6 | 26 | 19.4 | 14.3 | 2.78 | 1.42 | 273 |
Reputation | 5.5 | 8.5 | 32.1 | 38.7 | 15.2 | 3.51 | 1.03 | 271 |
Qualification | 12.5 | 15.1 | 27.6 | 31.2 | 13.6 | 3.18 | 1.22 | 279 |
Framework of working relationship (5-point Likert scale; 1 = not correct at all, 5 = fully correct) | ||||||||
Personal relationship | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 302 |
0: No | – | – | – | – | 83.8 | – | – | – |
1: Yes | – | – | – | – | 16.2 | – | – | – |
– | 1 | – | – | – | 5 | – | – | – |
Serves other players in club | 35.1 | 9.0 | 8.2 | 18.6 | 29.1 | 2.97 | 1.69 | 279 |
Number of players’ agents (total) | – | – | – | – | – | 2.03 | 1.18 | 307 |
Intensity of cooperation (tasks taken) | – | – | – | – | – | 15.43 | 5.65 | 302 |
Duration of working relationship (in years) | – | – | – | – | – | 5.43 | 3.76 | 298 |
Dependent variables
Incidents
Incident | Bundesliga (in %) | 2. Bundesliga (in %) | 3. Liga (in %) | Regionalliga (in %) | Overall (in %) | Kruskal–Wallis | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | χ2 | p | N | ||
Players’ current agent | |||||||||||||||||||
1 | Contract club | 95.0 | 5.0 | 0.0 | 91.3 | 6.5 | 2.2 | 94.8 | 4.1 | 1.0 | 94.8 | 4.1 | 1.1 | 93.4 | 5.2 | 1.4 | 1.180 | 0.758 | 288 |
2 | Contract sponsor | 97.5 | 2.5 | 0.0 | 93.5 | 4.3 | 2.2 | 96.6 | 3.4 | 0.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 96.9 | 2.4 | 0.7 | 6.724 | 0.081 | 288 |
3 | Investment | 97.5 | 2.5 | 0.0 | 93.5 | 6.5 | 0.0 | 94.9 | 5.1 | 0.0 | 99.0 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 96.2 | 3.8 | 0.0 | 4.314 | 0.230 | 288 |
4 | Penalty | 97.5 | 2.5 | 0.0 | 95.7 | 4.3 | 0.0 | 96.6 | 3.4 | 0.0 | 99.0 | 0.0 | 1.0 | 97.2 | 2.5 | 0.3 | 1.972 | 0.578 | 288 |
5 | Transfer fees | 62.5 | 30.0 | 7.5 | 69.2 | 23.1 | 7.7 | 79.7 | 15.3 | 5.1 | 85.4 | 8.3 | 6.3 | 75.9 | 17.5 | 6.6 | 10.145 | 0.017 | 286 |
6 | No work | 95.0 | 5.0 | 0.0 | 94.5 | 3.3 | 2.2 | 94.9 | 3.4 | 1.7 | 99.0 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 96.2 | 2.8 | 1.0 | 3.133 | 0.372 | 288 |
7 | Withheld requests | 90.0 | 10.0 | 0.0 | 84.6 | 14.3 | 1.1 | 91.5 | 8.5 | 0.0 | 94.8 | 4.1 | 1.1 | 90.2 | 9.1 | 0.7 | 5.640 | 0.130 | 287 |
8 | Withheld payments | 100.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 93.4 | 6.6 | 0.0 | 96.6 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 99.0 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 96.9 | 2.8 | 0.3 | 6.243 | 0.100 | 287 |
9 | False information | 97.5 | 2.5 | 0.0 | 88.0 | 7.6 | 4.4 | 91.5 | 8.5 | 0.0 | 96.9 | 2.1 | 1.0 | 93.1 | 5.2 | 1.7 | 7.307 | 0.063 | 288 |
10 | Change club | 90.0 | 10.0 | 0.0 | 87.9 | 9.9 | 2.2 | 93.2 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 92.8 | 5.2 | 2.1 | 90.9 | 7.0 | 2.1 | 1.699 | 0.637 | 287 |
11 | Sign contract | 95.0 | 5.0 | 0.0 | 85.9 | 13.0 | 1.1 | 91.5 | 8.5 | 0.0 | 91.7 | 5.2 | 3.1 | 90.2 | 8.4 | 1.4 | 3.257 | 0.354 | 287 |
12 | Pressure | 90.0 | 7.5 | 2.5 | 91.3 | 7.6 | 1.1 | 94.9 | 3.4 | 1.7 | 95.9 | 4.1 | 0.0 | 93.4 | 5.6 | 1.0 | 2.613 | 0.455 | 288 |
13 | Not playing | 87.5 | 12.5 | 0.0 | 85.8 | 10.9 | 3.3 | 91.5 | 8.5 | 0.0 | 94.8 | 4.1 | 1.1 | 90.3 | 8.3 | 1.4 | 4.838 | 0.184 | 288 |
Players’ previous agent | |||||||||||||||||||
1 | Contract club | 88.2 | 11.8 | 0.0 | 70.7 | 22.0 | 7.3 | 81.8 | 12.1 | 6.1 | 86.4 | 12.1 | 1.5 | 81.5 | 14.6 | 3.9 | 4.954 | 0.175 | 157 |
2 | Contract sponsor | 88.2 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 82.9 | 14.6 | 2.5 | 90.9 | 6.1 | 3.0 | 95.5 | 3.0 | 1.5 | 90.4 | 7.0 | 2.6 | 4.523 | 0.210 | 157 |
3 | Investment | 100.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 90.2 | 9.8 | 0.0 | 90.9 | 3.0 | 6.1 | 96.9 | 3.1 | 0.0 | 94.2 | 4.5 | 1.3 | 3.798 | 0.284 | 156 |
4 | Penalty | 100.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 90.2 | 9.8 | 0.0 | 90.9 | 6.1 | 3.0 | 97.0 | 3.0 | 0.0 | 94.2 | 5.2 | 0.6 | 3.757 | 0.289 | 156 |
5 | Transfer fees | 82.3 | 11.8 | 5.9 | 73.1 | 17.1 | 9.8 | 84.8 | 12.1 | 3.0 | 87.9 | 10.6 | 1.5 | 82.8 | 12.7 | 4.5 | 4.334 | 0.228 | 157 |
6 | No work | 88.2 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 87.8 | 7.3 | 4.9 | 94.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 90.9 | 6.1 | 3.0 | 90.4 | 5.8 | 3.8 | 0.901 | 0.825 | 157 |
7 | Withheld requests | 88.2 | 0.0 | 11.8 | 78.0 | 17.1 | 4.9 | 90.9 | 3.0 | 6.1 | 90.9 | 6.1 | 3.0 | 87.3 | 7.6 | 5.1 | 3.914 | 0.271 | 157 |
8 | Withheld payments | 94.1 | 0.0 | 5.9 | 87.8 | 12.2 | 0.0 | 90.9 | 6.1 | 3.0 | 97.0 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 93.0 | 5.1 | 1.9 | 3.329 | 0.344 | 157 |
9 | False information | 94.1 | 5.9 | 0.0 | 80.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 84.8 | 9.1 | 6.1 | 90.9 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 87.1 | 7.1 | 5.8 | 3.620 | 0.306 | 156 |
10 | Change club | 88.2 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 68.3 | 26.8 | 4.9 | 84.8 | 12.1 | 3.0 | 86.4 | 9.1 | 4.5 | 81.5 | 14.0 | 4.5 | 5.937 | 0.115 | 157 |
11 | Sign contract | 94.1 | 5.9 | 0.0 | 70.0 | 20.0 | 10.0 | 90.6 | 9.4 | 0.0 | 83.1 | 9.2 | 7.7 | 82.5 | 11.7 | 5.8 | 7.559 | 0.056 | 154 |
12 | Pressure | 93.8 | 0.0 | 6.3 | 80.5 | 17.1 | 2.4 | 90.9 | 6.1 | 3.0 | 95.4 | 3.1 | 1.5 | 90.3 | 7.1 | 2.6 | 6.296 | 0.098 | 155 |
13 | Not playing | 88.2 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 77.5 | 15.0 | 7.5 | 87.9 | 9.1 | 3.0 | 81.8 | 18.2 | 0.0 | 82.7 | 14.1 | 3.2 | 1.786 | 0.618 | 156 |
League | Yes (in %) | No (in %) | Do not know (in %) | χ2 | p | Cramer’s’ V | N |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Players’ current agent | |||||||
Bundesliga | 44.2 | 34.9 | 20.9 | 8.965 | 0.176 | 0.172 | 302 |
2. Bundesliga | 34.4 | 42.7 | 22.9 | – | – | – | – |
3. Liga | 43.5 | 40.3 | 16.1 | – | – | – | – |
Regionalliga | 27.7 | 55.4 | 16.8 | – | – | – | – |
Overall | 35.4 | 45.4 | 19.2 | – | – | – | – |
Players’ previous agent | |||||||
Bundesliga | 33.3 | 33.3 | 33.3 | 9.973 | 0.126 | 0.558 | 32 |
2. Bundesliga | 80.0 | 0.0 | 20.0 | – | – | – | – |
3. Liga | 33.3 | 44.4 | 22.2 | – | – | – | – |
Regionalliga | 20.0 | 73.3 | 6.7 | – | – | – | – |
Overall | 34.4 | 50.0 | 15.6 | – | – | – | – |
Monitoring
Independent variables
Data analysis
Results
Descriptions and bivariate analyses
Incidents
Monitoring
Bundesliga (in %) | 2. Bundesliga (in %) | 3. Liga (in %) | Regionalliga (in %) | Overall (in %) | χ2 | p | Cramer’s’ V | N | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Players’ current agent | |||||||||
Yes | 50.0 | 46.2 | 48.3 | 62.2 | 52.6 | 5.712 | 0.127 | 0.114 | 152 |
No | 50.0 | 53.8 | 51.7 | 37.8 | 47.4 | – | – | – | 137 |
Players’ previous agent | |||||||||
Yes | 50.0 | 38.1 | 48.6 | 52.2 | 47.5 | 2.154 | 0.541 | 0.115 | 77 |
No | 50.0 | 61.9 | 51.4 | 47.8 | 52.5 | – | – | – | 85 |
Players’ current agent | |||||||||
Monitoring areas | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | – | – | – | – |
Contract clubs | 65.0 | 67.4 | 71.4 | 78.7 | 72.4 | 2.296 | 0.513 | 0.123 | 110 |
Contract sponsors | 50.0 | 32.6 | 39.3 | 23.0 | 32.2 | 5.936 | 0.115 | 0.198 | 49 |
Contract extension | 85.0 | 72.1 | 67.9 | 78.7 | 75.7 | 2.474 | 0.480 | 0.128 | 115 |
Suggestion new club | 80.0 | 79.1 | 67.9 | 80.3 | 77.6 | 1.912 | 0.591 | 0.112 | 118 |
Suggestion career | 75.0 | 48.8 | 50.0 | 47.5 | 52.0 | 4.942 | 0.176 | 0.180 | 79 |
Suggestion sponsor | 55.0 | 18.6 | 42.9 | 19.7 | 28.3 | 14.184 | 0.003 | 0.305 | 43 |
Legal advice | 45.0 | 27.9 | 42.9 | 27.9 | 32.9 | 3.769 | 0.287 | 0.157 | 50 |
Players’ previous Agent | |||||||||
Contract clubs | 75.0 | 80.0 | 87.5 | 90.9 | 86.1 | 1.955 | 0.582 | 0.165 | 62 |
Contract sponsors | 37.5 | 40.0 | 50.0 | 27.3 | 36.1 | 2.560 | 0.465 | 0.189 | 26 |
Contract extension | 75.0 | 60.0 | 75.0 | 72.7 | 70.8 | 1.111 | 0.774 | 0.124 | 51 |
Suggestion new club | 100.0 | 66.7 | 75.0 | 69.7 | 73.6 | 3.516 | 0.319 | 0.221 | 53 |
Suggestion career | 37.5 | 26.7 | 31.3 | 39.4 | 34.7 | 0.860 | 0.835 | 0.109 | 25 |
Suggestion sponsor | 37.5 | 26.7 | 37.5 | 21.2 | 27.8 | 1.849 | 0.604 | 0.160 | 20 |
Legal advice | 50.0 | 26.7 | 25.0 | 15.2 | 23.6 | 4.493 | 0.213 | 0.250 | 17 |
Players’ current Agent | |||||||||
Who monitors | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Family/Spouse | 85.0 | 88.4 | 92.9 | 93.4 | 90.8 | 1.759 | 0.624 | 0.108 | 138 |
Friends/Colleagues | 19.0 | 25.6 | 57.1 | 37.7 | 35.5 | 11.443 | 0.010 | 0.274 | 54 |
Other Players’ Agents | 5.0 | 4.7 | 7.1 | 1.6 | 3.9 | 1.726 | 0.631 | 0.107 | 6 |
Jurist | 0.0 | 14.0 | 14.3 | 8.2 | 9.9 | 3.802 | 0.284 | 0.158 | 15 |
Club or association employees | 0.0 | 2.3 | 3.6 | 1.6 | 2.0 | 0.835 | 0.841 | 0.074 | 3 |
Players’ previous agent | |||||||||
Family/Spouse | 100.0 | 73.3 | 87.5 | 97.0 | 90.3 | 7.593 | 0.055 | 0.325 | 65 |
Friends/Colleagues | 12.5 | 46.7 | 25.0 | 36.4 | 33.3 | 3.399 | 0.334 | 0.217 | 24 |
Other Players’ Agents | 0.0 | 13.3 | 12.5 | 3.0 | 6.9 | 3.091 | 0.378 | 0.207 | 5 |
Jurist | 0.0 | 0.0 | 6.3 | 9.1 | 5.6 | 2.154 | 0.541 | 0.173 | 4 |
Club or association employees | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 3.0 | 1.4 | 1.198 | 0.753 | 0.129 | 1 |
Multiple analyses
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | AME | OR | AME | OR | AME | |
Control variables | ||||||
(Intercept) | 5.784 (0.906) | – | 2.782 (1.152) | – | 6.956 (0.1.539) | – |
Age | 0.953 (0.036) | −0.012 (0.008) | 0.951 (0.038) | −0.011 (0.008) | 0.918 (0.052) | −0.018 (0.011) |
Bundesliga | 0.620 (0.441) | −0.115 (0.107) | 0.605 (0.496) | −0.110 (0.098) | 0.738 (0.480) | −0.064 (0.100) |
2. Bundesliga | 0.451* (0.334) | −0.194* (0.081) | 0.481* (0.349) | −0.164* (0.077) | 0.549 (0.377) | −0.128 (0.080) |
3. Liga | 0.688 (0.382) | −0.090 (0.092) | 0.721 (0.402) | −0.072 (0.087) | 0.763 (0.418) | −0.057 (0.087) |
Regionalliga | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Selection criteria (before contract signing) | ||||||
Recommendation club | – | – | 0.647** (0.133) | −0.096** (0.027) | 0.595*** (0.146) | −0.109*** (0.028) |
Recommendation player(s) | – | – | 1.027 (0.120) | 0.006 (0.026) | 0.980 (0.131) | −0.004 (0.027) |
Recommendation parents | – | – | 1.101 (0.110) | 0.021 (0.024) | 1.180 (0.118) | 0.035 (0.024) |
Qualification | – | – | 1.364* (0.129) | 0.068* (0.027) | 1.490** (0.137) | 0.084** (0.027) |
Reputation | – | – | 1.101 (0.153) | 0.021 (0.034) | 1.051 (0.157) | 0.010 (0.033) |
Framework conditions of working relationship (after contract signing) | ||||||
No personal relationship | – | – | – | – | Ref | Ref |
Personal relationship | – | – | – | – | 0.908 (0.484) | −0.020 (0.101) |
Serves other players in club | – | – | – | – | 1.049 (0.089) | 0.010 (0.019) |
Number of players’ agents (total) | – | – | – | – | 1.485* (0.184) | 0.083* (0.037) |
Intensity of cooperation | – | – | – | – | 0.947 (0.030) | −0.011 (0.006) |
Duration of working relationship | – | – | – | – | 1.002 (0.058) | 0.000 (0.012) |
N | 233 | 233 | 233 | |||
Pseudo-R2 | 0.054 | 0.159 | 0.212 | |||
Goodness of fit | 0.248 | 0.944 | 0.768 |