Background
Methods
Sample size
Sampling technique
Interview
Oral clinical examination
Statistical analysis
Results
Sample characteristics
Sociodemographic feature | Category | Frequency % (n) |
---|---|---|
District of residence | Monduli | 52.9 (479) |
Longido | 47.1 (427) | |
Sex | Male | 43.9 (398) |
Female | 56.1 (508) | |
Age | 12–14 years | 87.3 (777) |
15–17 years | 12.7 (113) | |
Ethnicity | Maasai | 79.6 (721) |
Non Maasai | 20.4 (185) | |
Wealth Index | Most poor | 48.8 (438) |
Least poor | 51.2 (459) | |
Mother’s education | Low (≤ primary school) | 95.0 (861) |
High (≥ secondary school) | 5.0 (45) | |
Oral hygiene status | Poor (OHI-S ≥ 1) | 65.6 (594) |
Good (OHI-S < 1) | 34.4 (312) | |
Gingival bleeding | Negative | 59.1 (535) |
Positive | 40.9 (371) | |
Dental caries | DMFT = 0 | 91.2 (826) |
DMFT > 0 | 8.8 (80) | |
Dental fluorosis | TF score 0 | 10.3 (93) |
TF score 1–9 | 89.7 (813) | |
Dental fluorosis | TF score 0–4 | 51.4 (466) |
TF score 5–9 | 48.6 (440) | |
Dental erosion | Grade 0–2 | 98.1 (889) |
Grade 3–4 (extending into dentine) | 1.9 (17) | |
Dental erosion | Grade 0 | 70.0 (634) |
Grade 1–4 | 30.0 (272) | |
Tooth wear | Grade 0–1 | 83.5 (757) |
Grade 2–4 (extending into dentine) | 16.5 (149) | |
TMD pain | No | 88.2 (799) |
Yes | 11.8 (107) |
Reliability testing
Oral health related behaviors by ethnic group
Variable | Overall (N = 906) % (n) | Maasai (n = 721) % (n) | non Maasai (n = 185) % (n) | p-value* |
---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency of: Eating sweets | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 60.8 (551) | 62.4 (450) | 54.6 (101) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 39.2 (355) | 37.6 (271) | 45.4 (84) | 0.052 |
Eating biscuits | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 64.5 (584) | 67.4 (486) | 53.0 (98) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 35.5 (322) | 32.6 (235) | 47.0 (87) | < 0.001 |
Drinking carbonated soft drinks | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 66.3 (601) | 70.2 (506) | 51.4 (95) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 33.7 (305) | 29.8 (215) | 48.6 (90) | < 0.001 |
Drinking fruit drink | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 68.7 (622) | 71.8 (518) | 56.2 (104) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 31.3 (284) | 28.2 (203) | 43.8 (81) | < 0.001 |
Drinking tea with sugar | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 21.7 (197) | 24.7 (178) | 10.3 (19) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 78.3 (709) | 75.3 (543) | 89.7 (166) | < 0.001 |
Drinking tea without sugar | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 88.7 (804) | 87.5 (631) | 93.5 (173) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 11.3 (102) | 12.5 (90) | 6.5 (12) | 0.021 |
Drinking milk from cows | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 17.9 (162) | 14.1 (102) | 32.4 (60) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 82.1 (744) | 85.9 (619) | 67.6 (125) | < 0.001 |
Drinking soured milk | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 41.7 (378) | 41.5 (299) | 42.7 (79) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 58.3 (528) | 58.5 (422) | 57.3 (106) | 0.762 |
Eating meat | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 55.4 (502) | 56.7 (409) | 50.3 (93) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 44.6 (404) | 43.3 (312) | 49.7 (92) | 0.115 |
Cleaning teeth | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 24.6 (223) | 27.2 (196) | 14.6 (27) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 75.4 (683) | 72.8 (525) | 85.4 (158) | < 0.001 |
Using toothpaste | ||||
Low (≤1per week) | 62.4 (565) | 69.6 (502) | 34.1 (63) | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 37.6 (341) | 30.4 (219) | 65.9 (122) | < 0.001 |
Type of tooth brush | ||||
Plastic | 46.9 (425) | 39.8 (287) | 74.6 (138) | |
Chewing stick | 47.0 (426) | 53.7 (387) | 21.1 (39) | |
Charcoal | 0.7 (6) | 0.8 (6) | 0.0 (0) | |
Don’t have | 5.4 (49) | 5.7 (41) | 4.3 (8) | < 0.001 |
Variable | Overall (N = 906) % (n) | Maasai (n = 721) %(n) | Non Maasai (n = 185) %(n) | p-value* |
---|---|---|---|---|
Source of drinking water | ||||
Tap water | 56.7 (514) | 49.8 (359) | 83.8 (155) | |
Non tap water | 43.3 (392) | 50.2 (362) | 16.2 (30) | 0.001 |
Family uses magadi | ||||
No | 59.9 (483) | 57.7 (374) | 69.0 (109) | |
Yes | 40.1 (323) | 42.3 (274) | 31.0 (49) | 0.010 |
Do you use teeth for nail biting? | ||||
No | 54.9 (497) | 55.9 (403) | 50.8 (94) | |
Yes | 45.1 (409) | 44.1 (318) | 49.2 (91) | 0.215 |
Do you use teeth for pen/pencil biting? | ||||
No | 58.1 (526) | 58.9 (425) | 54.6 (101) | |
Yes | 41.9 (380) | 41.1 (296) | 45.4 (81) | 0.285 |
Do you use teeth for opening soda? | ||||
No | 48.2 (437) | 48.1 (347) | 48.6 (90) | |
Yes | 51.8 (469) | 51.9 (374) | 51.4 (95) | 0.899 |
Do you use teeth for holding needle? | ||||
No | 57.9 (525) | 57.6 (415) | 59.5 (110) | |
Yes | 42.1 (381) | 42.4 (306) | 40.5 (75) | 0.640 |
Do you use teeth for chewing sticks? | ||||
No | 57.1 (517) | 55.2 (398) | 64.3 (119) | |
Yes | 42.9 (389) | 44.8 (323) | 35.7 (66) | 0.025 |
Do you use teeth for chewing roots? | ||||
No | 61.0 (553) | 56.7 (409) | 77.8 (144) | |
Yes | 39.0 (353) | 43.3 (312) | 22.2 (41) | < 0.001 |
Do you use teeth for chewing sunflower? | ||||
No | 57.3 (519) | 58.9 (425) | 50.8 (94) | |
Yes | 42.7 (387) | 41.1 (296) | 49.2 (91) | 0.046 |
Do you eat vegetables? | ||||
No | 11.5 (104) | 11.8 (85) | 10.3 (19) | |
Yes | 88.5 (802) | 88.2 (636) | 89.7 (166) | 0.563 |
Do you eat fruits | ||||
No | 4.6 (42) | 5.0 (36) | 3.2 (6) | |
Yes | 95.4 (864) | 95.0 (685) | 96.8 (179) | 0.313 |
Do you clench or grind your teeth? | ||||
No | 64.8 (587) | 64.8 (467) | 64.9 (120) | |
Yes | 19.1 (173) | 19.0 (137) | 19.5 (36) | |
I don’t know | 16.1 (146) | 16.2 (117) | 15.7 (29) | 0.978 |
Oral diseases by oral health related behaviors
Dependent variable | Independent variables | Unadjusted analysis % (n) | Adjusted OR (95% CI)a |
---|---|---|---|
Oral hygiene status (poor hygiene) | Frequency of cleaning teeth | ||
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 56.4 (385) | 1 | |
Low (≤1per week) | 93.7 (209)* | 10.0 (4.3–20.0) | |
Type of cleaning instrument | |||
Chewing stick | 67.6 (288) | 1 | |
Plastic | 60.2 (256)* | 0.9 (0.7–1.3) | |
Gingival bleeding (Yes) | Frequency of cleaning teeth | ||
Low (≤1per week) | 84.3 (188) | 1 | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 26.8 (183)* | 0.1 (0.04–0.14) | |
Type of cleaning instrument | |||
Chewing stick | 45.5 (194) | 1 | |
Plastic | 31.8 (135)* | 0.7 (0.53–0.99) |
Dependent variable | Independent variables | Unadjusted analysis % (n) | Adjusted OR (95% CI)a |
---|---|---|---|
Dental caries experience (DMFT> 0) | Frequency of eating biscuits | ||
Low (≤1per week) | 5.8 (34) | 1 | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 14.3 (46)* | 2.5 (1.7–3.8) | |
Frequency of drinking tea with sugar | |||
Low (≤1per week) | 9.6 (19) | ||
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 8.6 (61) | ||
Frequency of drinking milk from cows | |||
Low (≤1per week) | 5.6 (9) | ||
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 9.5 (71) | ||
Frequency of tooth cleaning | |||
Low (≤1per week) | 9.0 (20) | ||
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 8.8 (60) | ||
Dental fluorosis (TF grade 5–9) | Source of drinking water | ||
Tap water | 41.2 (212) | 1 | |
Non tap water | 58.2 (228)* | 1.3 (0.6–2.8) | |
Family uses magadi | |||
No | 24.4 (118) | 1 | |
Yes | 90.4 (292)* | 24.2 (11.6–50.6) |
Dependent variable | Independent variables | Unadjusted analysis % (n) | Adjusted OR (95% CI)a |
---|---|---|---|
Dental erosion (grade 1–4) | Frequency of drinking carbonated soft drinks | ||
Low(≤ once per week) | 23.1 (139) | 1 | |
High (≥ twice per week) | 44.3 (135)* | 1.6 (1.1–2.5) | |
Frequency of drinking fruit drink | |||
Low(≤ once per week) | 24.0 (149) | 1 | |
High (≥ twice per week) | 44.0 (125)* | 1.5 (1.0–2.2) | |
Frequency of drinking milk from cows | |||
Low (≤1per week) | 35.8 (58) | 1 | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 29.0 (216)* | 0.7 (0.5–1.0) | |
Eating meat | |||
Low (≤1per week) | 25.3 (127) | 1 | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 36.4 (147)* | 1.3 (0.9–2.0) | |
Frequency of cleaning teeth | |||
Low (≤1per week) | 19.7 (44) | 1 | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 33.7 (230)* | 1.7 (1.1–2.6) | |
Frequency of using tooth paste | |||
Low(≤ once per week) | 25.5 (144) | 1 | |
High (≥ 2x per week) | 38.1 (130)* | 1.1 (0.7–1.8) | |
Tooth wear (Grade 1–4) | Frequency of drinking carbonated soft drinks | ||
Low(≤ once per week) | 46.3 (278) | ||
High (≥ twice per week) | 45.6 (139) | ||
Frequency of drinking fruit drink | |||
Low(≤ once per week) | 46.9 (292) | ||
High (≥ twice per week) | 44.0 (125) | ||
Frequency of drinking milk from cows | |||
Low (≤1per week) | 50.0 (81) | ||
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 45.2 (336) | ||
Frequency of cleaning teeth | |||
Low (≤1per week) | 51.1 (114) | 1 | |
High (≥2 per week or daily) | 44.4 (303)* | 0.8 (0.6–1.1) | |
Type of cleaning instrument | |||
Chewing stick | 50.9 (217) | 1 | |
Plastic | 40.7 (173)* | 0.6 (0.4–0.8) | |
Frequency of using tooth paste | |||
Low(≤ once per week) | 46.5 (263) | ||
High (≥ 2x per week) | 45.2 (154) | ||
Uses teeth for nail biting | |||
No | 35.8 (178) | 1 | |
Yes | 58.4 (239)* | 1.9 (1.4–2.4) | |
Uses teeth for pen/pencil biting | |||
No | 41.4 (218) | 1 | |
Yes | 52.4 (199)* | 0.9 (0.6–1.3) | |
Uses teeth for opening soda | |||
No | 35.9 (157)* | 1 | |
Yes | 55.4 (260) | 1.8 (1.4–2.4) | |
Uses teeth for holding needles | |||
No | 38.1 (200) | 1 | |
Yes | 57.0 (217)* | 1.6 (1.3–2.1) | |
Uses teeth for chewing sunflower seeds | |||
No | 42.6 (221)* | 1 | |
Yes | 50.6 (196) | 1.0 (0.8–1.3) |
Dependent variable | Independent variables | Unadjusted analysis % (n) | Adjusted OR (95% CI)a |
---|---|---|---|
TMD (2Q/TMD > 0)b | Eating vegetables | ||
No | 13.5 (14) | ||
Yes | 11.6 (93) | ||
Eating fruits | |||
No | 9.5 (4) | ||
Yes | 11.9 (103) | ||
Do you clench or grind your teeth? | |||
No | 9.0 (53) | 1 | |
Yes | 23.1 (40)* | 2.3 (1.5–3.7) |