Introduction
Materials and methods
Data sources and searches
Selection of studies
Outcome measures
Complication | Description |
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Minor postprocedural bleeding | |
Cuff leak | Perforation of tracheostomy tube balloon within the first 24 hours |
Difficult dilatation | Need for excessive force and/or enlargement of the incision, and/or more than three passes of the largest dilator |
Difficult insertion | Need for more than two passes of tracheostomy tube/dilator combination before successful insertion |
Esophageal perforation | Esophageal insertion of needle and/or guide wire and/or tracheostomy tube |
False route | Paratracheal insertion of tracheostomy tube |
Gastric aspiration | Tracheal aspiration of gastric contents during the procedure |
Hypotension | Systolic blood pressure lower than 90 mmHg |
Hypoxemia | Pulse oximetry arterial oxygen saturation lower than 90% |
Inflammation | Edema and/or erythema and/or tenderness, no pus of the stoma |
Infection | Signs of inflammation and (culture-positive) purulent discharge (requiring antibiotic therapy) of the stoma |
Minor bleeding | Bleeding controlled by compression or insertion of the tracheotomy tube, need for dressing change, estimated external blood loss <20 ml |
Major bleeding | Need for surgical exploration, suture ligation, electrocautery and/or transfusion of packed red blood cells, estimated blood loss of either >7 gauze swabs or >20 ml external or intratracheal blood loss |
Loss of airway | Absence of airway access, requiring reintubation |
Pneumothorax | Intrapleural air on postoperative chest radiograph |
Pneumomediastinum | Mediastinal air on postoperative chest radiograph |
Subcutaneous emphysema | Subcutaneous air on postoperative chest radiograph |
Tracheo-innominate fistula | Erosion of the innominate vein through tracheostomy tube |
Data extraction and quality assessment
Risk of bias
Data synthesis and analysis
Qualitative analysis
Quantitative analysis
Results
Study selection
Study description
Study | Random assignment | Allocation concealment | Blinding | Adequate selection and description of study population | Comparability of groups | Pre-defined treatment protocol | Absence of confounders | Absence of cointerventions | A priori definition of outcome | ITT | Power analysis | Follow-up duration | Patients screened/included in trial | Reports on patients lost to follow-up | Planned or premature termination of study |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Studies comparing PT vs. ST (pooled PT vs. ST, including MDT vs. ST)
| |||||||||||||||
Hazard and colleagues [36] | Yes | Unclear | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation, underlying diagnosis, APACHE II score and coagulation parameters | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 12 weeks after decannulation | NR/ 46 | No | As planned |
Crofts and colleagues [31] | Yes | No, randomization by alternating weeks | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation and APACHE II score | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 3 months | NR/ 53 | No | As planned |
Friedman and colleagues [34] | Yes | Unclear, randomization by random number tables | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation, underlying diagnosis, APACHE II score and coagulation parameters | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | NR | NR/ 53 | No | As planned |
Holdgaard and colleagues [38] | Yes | Unclear | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender and duration of intubation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | NR | NR/ 60 | No | As planned |
Gysin and colleagues [35] | Yes | Unclear, randomization by computer-generated random list | No | No | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender and duration of intubation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 3 months after decannulation | NR/ 70 | Yes, 40 lost | As planned |
Porter and Ivatury [42] | Yes | Unclear, randomization by sealed envelopes | No | No | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender and duration of intubation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | NR | NR/ 70 | No | As planned |
Heikkinen and colleagues [37] | Yes | No, randomization by the lot | No | No | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender and duration of intubation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 18 months | NR/ 57 | Yes, 46 lost | As planned |
Freeman and colleagues [33] | Yes | Unclear | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation, saps and coagulation parameters | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Hospital discharge | NR/ 80 | No | As planned (hospital discharge) |
Melloni and colleagues [40] | Yes | Unclear | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation and SAPS II | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 6 months | NR/ 50 | Yes, 32 lost | As planned (6 months) |
Sustic and colleagues [44] | Yes | Unclear | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age and gender | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ICU discharge | NR/ 16 | No | As planned (ICU discharge) |
Wu and colleagues [47] | Yes | Unclear, randomization by computer-generated random list | No | No | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation and underlying diagnosis | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 2 years | NR/ 83 | Yes, 52 lost | As planned |
Antonelli and colleagues [28] | Yes | Unclear, randomization by computer-generated random list | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation, underlying diagnosis and SAPS II | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | 360d | 825/ 139 | Yes, 36 lost | As planned (12 months) |
Tabaee and colleagues [45] | Yes | No, randomization by the last number of the medical record | No | No | Yes no statistical differences in age, gender and duration of intubation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 1 week | 45/43 | No | As planned (1 week) |
Silvester and colleagues [43] | Yes | Yes, by sealed envelopes | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation, underlying diagnosis, APACHE II score and coagulation parameters | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | 15 to 40 months | 298/ 200 | Yes, 119 lost | Terminated early after 200 patients due to lack of power |
Studies comparing different PT techniques (pooled MDT/SSDT vs. pooled GWDF/ RDT/BDT, including MDT/SSDT vs. GWDF alone)
| |||||||||||||||
Nates and colleagues [41] | Yes | Yes, randomization by sealed envelopes | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation, APACHE II score and coagulation parameters | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Day 7 | NR/ 100 | Yes, 8 lost | As planned (day 7) |
van Heurn and colleagues [46] | Yes | Unclear | No | No | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender and duration of intubation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ICU discharge | NR/ 127 | No | As planned (ICU discharge) |
Ambesh and colleagues [26] | Yes | Unclear | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation, APACHE II score and BMI | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 8 weeks after decannulation | NR/ 60 | Yes, 27 lost | As planned |
Byhahn and colleagues [29] | Yes | Unclear, randomization by computer-generated random list | No | No | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation and BMI | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | NR | NR/ 70 | No | As planned |
Anon and colleagues [27] | Yes | Unclear, randomization by number block procedure | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation and APACHE II score | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Day 282 ± 198 | NR/ 53 | Yes, 36 lost | As planned |
Kaiser and colleagues [39] | Yes | Yes, randomization by sealed envelopes | No | Yes | Yes, statistically proven for age, gender, duration of intubation and SAPS II | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | NR | NR/ 100 | No | As planned |
Cianchi and colleagues [30] | Yes | Unclear, randomization by computer-generated random list | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation BMI and coagulation parameters | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Hospital discharge | 78/ 70 | Yes, 0 lost | As planned |
Fikkers and colleagues [32] | Yes | Yes, randomization by sealed envelopes | No | Yes | Yes, no statistical differences in age, gender, duration of intubation, SOFA score and BMI | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 3 months after decannulation | 145/ 120 | Yes, 73 lost | As planned |
Patient population and severity of critical illness
Exclusion criteria
Tracheostomy techniques
Medical specialty performing the tracheotomy
Location of procedure
Use of bronchoscopy
Reported complications
Evidence synthesis
Percutaneous tracheostomy techniques versus surgical tracheostomy
Multiple dilatator techniques versus surgical tracheostomy
Pooled MDT + SSDT versus pooled GWDF + RDT + BDT
Pooled MDT + SSDT versus GWDF
Publication bias
Discussion
Percutaneous tracheostomy versus surgical tracheostomy
Meta-analysis | Studies included | Sum of patients | Intervention | Endpoint | Results | Conclusions | Limitations | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dulguerov and colleagues [48] | ST (1960 to 1984) | Total 4,185 | • Serious complications: death, cardiopulmonary arrest, pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, tracheoesophageal fistula, mediastinitis, sepsis, intratracheal postoperative hemorrhage, cannula obstruction and displacement, tracheal stenosis | • No OR, RR; or RD calculated | • Higher incidence of perioperative complications, perioperative death and serious cardiorespiratory events in the PT group | • Analyzes three historical cohorts | ||
ST (1985 to 1996) | Total 3,512 | • Intermediate complications: intraoperative desaturation, lesions of the posterior tracheal wall, cannula misplacement, switch of a PT procedure to a surgical technique, aspiration, pneumonia, atelectasis, lesions of the tracheal cartilages | • Higher incidence of postoperative complications in the ST group | • Includes prospective and observational publications addressing perioperative and postoperative complications of tracheostomy | ||||
PT | Total 1,817 | • Mild complications: intraoperative hemorrhage, false passage, difficulty with tube placement, subcutaneous emphysema, postoperative wound hemorrhage, infections, delayed closure of tracheostomy tract, keloids, unaesthetic scarring | • Includes studies using different PT techniques to ST | |||||
• Included studies comprise a variety of patient populations over a long period of time (1960 to 1996) | ||||||||
• Does not follow the Cochrane Collaboration Guidelines | ||||||||
• Does not distinguish between intraoperative and postoperative complications | ||||||||
Cheng and Fee [49] | Crofts and colleagues [31] | 25/28 | MDT vs. ST |
Intraoperative
| • No OR, RR or RD calculated | • Length of procedure is shorter in PT compared to ST | • Does not follow the Cochrane Collaboration Guidelines | |
Friedman and colleagues [34] | 26/27 | MDT vs. ST | • Major bleeding | • Desaturation is less distinct in PT compared to ST | • Includes only four RCTs with small patient populations | |||
Hazard and colleagues [36] | 22/24 | MDT vs. ST | • Minor bleeding | • Lower incidence of minor intraoperative bleeding in PT | • No evaluation of long-term complications | |||
Holdgaard and colleagues [38] | 30/30 | MDT vs. ST | • Paratracheal insertion | • PT lower incidence of minor postoperative bleeding and infection | ||||
Total 103/109 | • Difficult insertion | |||||||
• Hypotension | ||||||||
• Desaturation | ||||||||
• Loss of airway | ||||||||
• Length of procedure | ||||||||
Postoperative: | ||||||||
• Major bleeding | ||||||||
• Minor bleeding | ||||||||
• Pneumothorax | ||||||||
• Subcutaneous emphysema | ||||||||
• Aspiration | ||||||||
• Atelectais | ||||||||
• Mortality | ||||||||
Freeman and colleagues [7] | Hazard and colleagues [36] | 22/24 | MDT vs. ST | • Length of procedure | • Length of procedure: MD −9.8 (−7.83 to –11.85), P = NR, s | • PDT shorter length and greater ease of procedure | • Includes only five RCTs with small patient populations | |
Crofts and colleagues [31] | 25/28 | MDT vs. ST | • Operative complications | • (All) operative complications: OR 0.73 (0.06 to 9.37), P = NR, ns | • PDT lower incidence of overall postoperative complications, intraprocedural and postprocedural bleeding and stoma infections | • No evaluation of long-term complications | ||
Friedman and colleagues [34] | 26/27 | MDT vs. ST | • Intraoperative bleeding | • Intraoperative bleeding: OR 0.15 (0.02 to 0.39), P = NR, s | • Evidence for publication bias | |||
Holdgaard and colleagues [38] | 30/30 | MDT vs. ST | • Postoperative complications | • (All) postoperative complications: OR 0.15 (0.07 to 0.29), P = NR, s | ||||
Porter and Ivatury [42] | 12/12 | MDT vs. ST | • Postoperative bleeding | • Postoperative bleeding: OR 0.39 (0.18 to 0.88), P = NR, s | ||||
Total 115/121 | • Stoma infection | • Stoma infection: OR 0.02 (0.01 to 0.07), P = NR, s | ||||||
• Mortality, not differentiated | • Mortality, not differentiated: OR 0.63 (0.18 to 2.20), P = NR, ns | |||||||
Delaney and colleagues [6] | Antonelli and colleagues [28] | 67/72 | TLT vs. ST | • Wound infection | • Wound infection OR 0.28 (0.16 to 0.49, P < 0.0005 | • Compared with ST, PDT has a lower incidence of wound infections | • Does not distinguish between intraoperative and postoperative complications | |
Crofts and colleagues [31] | 25/28 | MDT vs. ST | • Bleeding | • Bleeding OR 0.80 (0.45 to 1.41), P = 0.35 | • Compared with ST, PT is not associated with a higher incidence of clinically significant bleeding, major periprocedural or long-term outcomes | • No evaluation of long-term complications | ||
Freeman and colleagues [33] | 40/40 | MDT vs. ST | • Mortality | • Mortality OR 0.79 (0.59 to 1.07), P = 0.13 | • When comparing open ST performed in the OT versus PDT performed in the ICU, PDT has a lower incidence of relevant bleeding (P = 0.01) and mortality (P = 0.05) | |||
Friedman and colleagues [34] | 26/27 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Gysin and colleagues [35] | 35/35 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Hazard and colleagues [36] | 22/24 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Heikkinen and colleagues [37] | 30/26 | GWDF vs. ST | ||||||
Holdgaard and colleagues [38] | 30/30 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Ahn and colleagues [50] | NA/NA | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Massick and colleagues [51] | 50/50 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Melloni and colleagues [40] | 25/25 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Porter and Ivatury [42] | 12/12 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Raine and colleagues [52] | 50/50 | GWDF vs. ST | ||||||
Silvester and colleagues [43] | 100/100 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Sustic and colleagues [44] | 8/8 | GWDF vs. ST | ||||||
Tabaee and colleagues [45] | 29/14 | SSDT vs. ST | ||||||
Wu and colleagues [47] | 41/42 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Total 590/583 | MDT vs. ST | |||||||
Higgins and Punthakee [8] | Antonelli and colleagues [28] | 67/72 | TLT vs. ST | • Minor hemorrhage | • Minor hemorrhage OR 1.09 (0.61 to 1.97), P = 0.77 | • PDT higher incidence of false passage and accidental decannulation | • Does not distinguish between intraoperative and postoperative complications | |
Crofts and colleagues [31] | 25/28 | MDT vs. ST | • Major hemorrhage | • Major hemorrhage OR 0.60 (0.28 to 1.26), P = 0.17 | • PDT lower incidence of wound infection and unfavorable scarring | • Evidence for publication bias | ||
Freeman and colleagues [33] | 40/40 | MDT vs. ST | • False passage | • False passage OR 2.70 (0.89 to 8.22), P = 0.008 | • PDT performed faster and with more cost-effectiveness | • Heterogeneous definition of study outcomes, in particular concerning bleeding and wound infection | ||
Friedman and colleagues [34] | 26/27 | MDT vs. ST | • Wound infection | • Wound infection OR 0.37 (0.22 to 0.62), P = 0.0002 | • Overall complications did not differ between groups (P = 0.05) | |||
Gysin and colleagues [35] | 35/35 | MDT vs. ST | • Unfavorable scar | • Unfavorable scar OR 0.44 (0.23 to 0.83), P = 0.01 | • When comparing open TT performed in the OT vs. PDT performed in the ICU, PDT has a lower overall complication rate (P = 0.01) | |||
Hazard and colleagues [36] | 22/24 | MDT vs. ST | • Decannulation/dislodgement | • Decannulation/obstruction OR 2.79 (1.29 to 6.03), P = 0.009 | ||||
Heikkinen and colleagues [37] | 30/26 | GWDF vs. ST | • Subglottic stenosis | • Subglottic stenosis OR 0.59 (0.27 to 1.29), P = 0.19 | ||||
Holdgaard and colleagues [38] | 30/30 | MDT vs. ST | • Mortality | • Mortality OR 0.70 (0.24 to 2.01), P = 0.50 | ||||
Massick and colleagues [51] | 50/50 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Melloni and colleagues [40] | 25/25 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Porter and Ivatury [42] | 12/12 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Raine and colleagues [52] | 50/50 | GWDF vs. ST | ||||||
Sustic and colleagues [44] | 8/8 | GWDF vs. ST | ||||||
Tabaee and colleagues [45] | 29/14 | SSDT vs. ST | ||||||
Wu and colleagues [47] | 41/42 | MDT vs. ST | ||||||
Total 490/483 | ||||||||
Cabrini and colleagues [15] | Anon and colleagues [27] | 27/26 | SSDT vs. GWDF | • Conversion to other method | • Conversion to other method | • SSDT lower incidence of mild complications than BDT and GWDF | • Only few studies, comparing different PT techniques; in particular those comparing TLT, BDT and RDT | |
Ambesh and colleagues [26] | 30/30 | SSDT vs. GWDF | • Any mild complication | • TLT vs. GWDF RD = 23% (11 to 36%), P = 0.0002 | • SSDT lower frequency of failure than RDT | • Does not distinguish between intraoperative and postoperative complications | ||
Birbicer and colleagues [53] | 50/50 | MDT vs. RDT | • Any severe complication | • SSDT vs. RDT RD = 17% (4 to 30%), P = 0.01 | • GWDF lower incidence of severe complications and frequency of failure than TLT | |||
Byhahn and colleagues [12] | 25/25 | MDT vs. SSDT | • Any mild complication | • No differences between MDT and SSDT | ||||
Byhahn and colleagues [29] | 35/35 | SSDT vs. RDT | • SSDT vs. BDT RD = 40% (22 to 58%), P < 0.0001 | • MDT lower incidence of mild complications than GWDF, same incidence of severe complications and conversion rate | ||||
Cantais and colleagues [54] | 47/53 | TLT vs. GWDF | • SSDT vs. GWDF RD = 19% (5 to 33%), P = 0.008 | |||||
Cianchi and colleagues [30] | 35/35 | SSDT vs. BDT | • Any severe complication | |||||
Johnson and colleagues [55] | 25/25 | MDT vs. SSDT | • TLT vs. GWDF RD = 30% (16 to 44%), P < 0.0001 | |||||
Kaiser and colleagues [39] | 48/42 | MDT vs. GWDF | ||||||
Nates and colleagues [41] | 52/48 | MDT vs. GWDF | ||||||
Stocchetti and colleagues [56] | 10/10 | MDT vs. TLT | ||||||
van Heurn and colleagues [46] | 63/64 | MDT vs. GWDF | ||||||
Yurtseven and colleagues [57] | 22/45 | MDT vs. GWDF/RDT | ||||||
Total 469/488 |
Differences among PT techniques
Limitations of the present analysis
Conclusion
Key messages
-
PT can be performed faster and reduces the risk for stoma inflammation and infection when compared with ST.
-
PT is associated with increased technical difficulties when compared with ST.
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Among PT techniques, MDT and SSDT were associated with the lowest risk of intraprocedural technical difficulties and major intraprocedural bleeding.
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Risk for tracheal stenosis and odds for hospital survival were not different between PT techniques and ST.