“We are unlikely to ever know everything about every organism. Therefore, we should agree on some convenient organism(s) to study in great depth, so that we can use the experience of the past (in that organism) to build on in the future. This will lead to a body of knowledge in that ‘model system’ that allows us to design appropriate studies of nonmodel systems to answer important questions about their biology” [1].“Model species are usually easy to rear, observe, or otherwise experimentally manipulate. They therefore allow knowledge to be built up rapidly and efficiently, because confounding factors are known and thus can be controlled in subsequent experiments” [2].
Introduction
Author(s) | Date of publication | Locality | Animal model | Major research focus |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chapman and Sankey [1] | 1955 | England | Rabbits | Arthropod inventory; habitats |
Bornemissza [2] | 1957 | Australia | Guinea pig | Arthropod inventory; succession |
Reed [3] | 1958 | USA | Dogs | Arthropod inventory; succession |
Payne [4] | 1965 | USA | Pigs | Surface decomposition; insect access |
Payne et al. [5] | 1968 | USA | Pigs | Underground decomposition |
Payne and King [6] | 1972 | USA | Pigs | Water decomposition |
Nabagło [7] | 1973 | Poland | Bank voles | Surface/underground decomposition; insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Cornaby [8] | 1974 | Costa Rica | Lizards, toads | Arthropod inventory; succession; habitats |
Johnson [9] | 1975 | USA | Small mammals | Arthropod inventory; succession; seasons |
Smith [10] | 1975 | England | Fox | Arthropod inventory; succession |
Coe [11] | 1978 | Kenya | Elephants | Surface decomposition; insect inventory |
McKinnerney [12] | 1978 | USA | Rabbits | Arthropod inventory; succession; scavenging |
Jiron and Cartin [13] | 1981 | Costa Rica | Dogs | Arthropod inventory; succession |
Abell et al. [14] | 1982 | USA | Turtles | Arthropod inventory; succession |
Rodriguez and Bass [15] | 1983 | USA | Humans | Insect inventory; succession |
Schoenly and Reid [16] | 1983 | USA | Various mammals | Cadaver mass; insect inventory |
Lord and Burger [17] | 1984 | USA | Gulls | Arthropod inventory; succession; seasons; habitats; scavenging |
Rodriguez and Bass [18] | 1985 | USA | Humans | Underground decomposition |
Early and Goff [19] | 1986 | Hawaii | Cats | Surface decomposition; arthropod inventory; succession |
Micozzi [20] | 1986 | USA | Rats | Freezing; wounds |
Braack [21] | 1986 | South Africa | Impala | Insect inventory |
Peschke et al. [22] | 1987 | Germany | Rabbits | Insect inventory; succession; habitats; seasons |
Tullis and Goff [23] | 1987 | Hawaii | Pig | Surface decomposition; arthropod inventory; succession |
Blacklith and Blacklith [24] | 1990 | Ireland | Birds, mice | Insect inventory; habitats |
Kentner and Streit [25] | 1990 | Germany | Rats | Insect inventory; succession; habitats |
Hewadikaram and Goff [26] | 1991 | Hawaii | Pigs | Cadaver mass |
Vass et al. [27] | 1992 | USA | Humans | Compounds released into soil during decomposition |
Shean et al. [28] | 1993 | USA | Pigs | Sun exposure |
Anderson and VanLaerhoven [29] | 1996 | Canada | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
Tantawi et al. [30] | 1996 | Egypt | Rabbits | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Keiper et al. [31] | 1997 | USA | Rats | Water decomposition; habitats; arthropod inventory |
Richards and Goff [32] | 1997 | Hawaii | Pigs | Arthropod inventory; succession; habitats |
Avila and Goff [33] | 1998 | Hawaii | Pigs | Burnt cadaver decomposition; habitats; succession |
Komar and Beattie [34, 35] | 1998 | Canada | Pigs | Cadaver mass; habitats; clothing; post-mortem artefacts |
Tomberlin and Adler [36] | 1998 | USA | Rats | Water decomposition; insect inventory; seasons; habitats |
Bourel et al. [37] | 1999 | France | Rabbits | Insect inventory; succession; habitats |
DeJong and Chadwick [38] | 1999 | USA | Rabbits | Insect inventory; succession; habitats |
Turner and Wiltshire [39] | 1999 | England | Pigs | Underground decomposition |
VanLaerhoven and Anderson [40] | 1999 | Canada | Pigs | Underground decomposition; insect inventory; succession; habitats |
Carvalho et al. [41] | 2000 | Brazil | Pigs, humans | Insect inventory |
Davis and Goff [42] | 2000 | Hawaii | Pigs | Intertidal habitats; succession |
Shalaby et al. [43] | 2000 | Hawaii | Pigs | Hanging cadaver decomposition; succession |
Arnaldos et al. [44] | 2001 | Spain | Chickens | Insect inventory; succession |
Carvalho and Linhares [45] | 2001 | Brazil | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
Marchenko [46] | 2001 | Russia | Dogs, cats, rabbits, pigs | Decomposition in various scenarios; seasons; habitats; insect repellents; clothing, plant response to cadavers |
Wolff et al. [47] | 2001 | Colombia | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
Yan et al. [48] | 2001 | USA | Pigs | Adipocere formation |
Centeno et al. [49] | 2002 | Argentina | Pigs | Insect inventory; seasons; habitats; succession |
Hobischak and Anderson [50] | 2002 | Canada | Pigs | Water decomposition; habitat; arthropod inventory; succession |
LeBlanc and Strongman [51] | 2002 | Canada | Pigs | Insect inventory; habitats |
Archer and Elgar [52, 53] | 2003 | Australia | Pigs | Insect inventory; seasons; colonisation patterns |
Bharti and Singh [54] | 2003 | India | Rabbits | Insect inventory; seasons; succession |
Kočárek [55] | 2003 | Czech Republic | Rats | Insect inventory; seasons; habitats; succession |
Shahid et al. [56] | 2003 | USA | Pigs | Arthropod saturation in human taphonomy facilities |
Watson and Carlton [57–59] | 2003, 2005 | USA | Bear, deer, alligators, pigs | Insect inventory; seasons; succession; animal models comparison |
Anderson and Hobischak [60] | 2004 | Canada | Pigs | Marine decomposition |
Archer [61, 62] | 2004 | Australia | Pigs | Succession; seasons; annual variation; abiotic determinants of decomposition rate |
Arnaldos et al. [63] | 2004 | Spain | Chickens | Insect inventory; seasons; succession |
Grassberger and Frank [64] | 2004 | Austria | Pigs | Urban decomposition; insect inventory; succession |
Tabor et al. [65, 66] | 2004, 2005 | USA | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Vass et al. [67] | 2004 | USA | Humans | Volatiles of decomposition |
Anderson [68] | 2005 | Canada | Pigs | Arson and insect evidence |
Moura et al. [69] | 2005 | Brazil | Rats | Succession mechanisms; seasons; habitats |
Perez et al. [70] | 2005 | Colombia | Pigs | Urban decomposition; insect inventory; succession |
Schoenly et al. [71] | 2005 | USA | Pigs | Arthropod saturation in human taphonomy facilities |
Weitzel [72] | 2005 | Canada | Pigs | Underground decomposition; seasons |
DeJong and Hoback [73]; DeJong et al. [74] | 2006; 2011 | USA | Rats | Investigator disturbance; insect inventory; succession |
Hobischak et al. [75] | 2006 | Canada | Pigs | Sun exposure; insect inventory; succession |
Joy et al. [76] | 2006 | USA | Pigs | Blow fly inventory; habitats; annual variation; maggot mass |
Lang et al. [77] | 2006 | Australia | Possums | Insect inventory; colonisation patterns |
Adlam and Simmons [78] | 2007 | UK | Rabbits | Repeated cadaver disturbance |
Gruner et al. [79] | 2007 | USA | Pigs | Blow fly inventory; seasons; annual variation |
Martinez et al. [80] | 2007 | Colombia | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
O’Brien et al. [81] | 2007 | Australia | Pigs | Scavenging |
Schoenly et al. [82] | 2007 | USA | Pigs, humans | Sampling techniques; human/pig comparison |
Benninger et al. [83] | 2008 | Canada | Pigs | Compounds released into soil during decomposition |
Eberhardt and Elliot [84] | 2008 | New Zealand | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; habitats |
Fiedler et al. [85] | 2008 | Germany | Pigs | Adult fly inventory; succession; habitats |
Huntington et al. [86] | 2008 | USA | Pigs | Blow fly multigenerational colonisation |
Matuszewski et al. [87] | 2008 | Poland | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; habitats |
Moretti et al. [88] | 2008 | Brazil | Mice, rats | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Sharanowski et al. [89] | 2008 | Canada | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons; sun exposure |
Ururahy-Rodrigues et al. [90] | 2008 | Brazil | Pigs | Post-mortem artefacts |
Voss et al. [91] | 2008 | Australia | Pigs | Inside-car decomposition; colonisation patterns |
Wang et al. [92] | 2008 | China | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Charabidze et al. [93] | 2009 | France | Rats, Mice | Insect repellents; colonisation patterns |
Dekeirsschieter et al. [94] | 2009 | Belgium | Pigs | Volatiles of decomposition |
Kalinová et al. [95] | 2009 | Czech Republic | Mice | Carrion beetle attractants |
Kelly et al. [96, 97] | 2009, 2011 | South Africa | Pigs | Wounds; wrapping; clothing |
Kjorlien et al. [98] | 2009 | Canada | Pigs | Scavenging; habitats; clothing |
Nelder et al. [99] | 2009 | USA | Alligators | Succession |
Özdemir and Sert [100] | 2009 | Turkey | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Pakosh and Rogers [101] | 2009 | Canada | Pigs (limbs) | Water decomposition; |
Parmenter and MacMahon [102] | 2009 | USA | Various mammals and birds | Seasons; surface/underground decomposition; scavenging; nutrient cycling |
Segura et al. [103] | 2009 | Colombia | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
Van Belle et al. [104] | 2009 | Canada | Pigs | Compounds released into soil during decomposition; surface/underground decomposition |
Voss et al. [105] | 2009 | Australia | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons; habitats |
Bachmann and Simmons [106] | 2010 | UK | Rabbits | Underground decomposition; colonisation patterns |
Battán Horenstein et al. [107–109] | 2010, 2011, 2012 | Argentina | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons; habitats |
Bonacci et al. [110] | 2010 | Italy | Pigs | Insect inventory; seasons; succession |
Carter et al. [111] | 2010 | Australia | Rats | Underground decomposition |
Chin et al. [112] | 2010 | Malaysia | Pigs | Hanging cadaver decomposition |
Cross and Simmons [113] | 2010 | UK | Pigs | Wounds |
Matuszewski et al. [114–116] | 2010, 2011 | Poland | Pigs | Surface decomposition; insect inventory; seasons; habitats; succession |
Michaud et al. [117] | 2010 | Canada | Pigs | Insect inventory; seasons; habitats |
Reibe and Madea [118] | 2010 | Germany | Pigs | Colonisation patterns; habitats |
Sabanoglu and Sert [119] | 2010 | Turkey | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Simmons et al. [120] | 2010 | UK | Rabbits | Insect access; surface/underground decomposition |
Simmons et al. [121] | 2010 | UK | Pigs | Insect access; cadaver mass |
Swann et al. [122, 123] | 2010 | Canada, Australia | Pigs | Compounds released during decomposition |
Szpila et al. [124] | 2010 | USA, Poland | Pigs, rats | Colonisation of buried cadavers |
Valdes-Perezgasga et al. [125] | 2010 | Mexico | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
Ahmad et al. [126] | 2011 | Malaysia | Macaques | Wrapping |
Anderson [127] | 2011 | Canada | Pigs | Indoor/outdoor decomposition |
Anton et al. [128] | 2011 | Germany | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Barrios and Wolff [129] | 2011 | Colombia | Pigs | Water decomposition; arthropod inventory; succession; habitats |
Bajerlein et al. [130] | 2011 | Poland | Pigs | Seasons; habitats; colonisation patterns |
Bugajski et al. [131] | 2011 | USA | Pigs | Freezing |
Cassar et al. [132] | 2011 | Australia | Pigs | Adipocere formation |
DeVault et al. [133] | 2011 | USA | Mice | Scavenging |
Dickson et al. [134] | 2011 | New Zealand | Pigs (heads) | Marine decomposition; bacterial succession |
von Hoermann et al. [135] | 2011 | Germany | Pigs | Hide beetle attractants |
Spicka et al. [136] | 2011 | USA | Pigs | Cadaver mass |
Statheropoulos et al. [137] | 2011 | Greece | Pigs | Volatiles of decomposition |
Voss et al. [138] | 2011 | Australia | Pigs | Clothing |
Al-Mesbah et al. [139] | 2012 | Kuwait | Rabbits | Insect inventory; habitats; succession |
Brasseur et al. [140] | 2012 | Belgium | Pigs | Volatiles of decomposition |
Gruenthal et al. [141] | 2012 | UK | Pigs | Burnt cadaver decomposition |
Martin-Vega and Baz [142, 143] | 2012, 2013 | Spain | Squids | Carrion and skin beetle inventory; seasons; habitats |
Ortloff et al. [144] | 2012 | Chile | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
Prado e Castro et al. [145, 146] | 2012, 2013 | Portugal | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Shelomi et al. [147] | 2012 | USA | Pigs | Insect repellents; blow fly colonisation patterns |
Stadler et al. [148] | 2012 | Canada | Pigs | Volatiles of decomposition |
Widya et al. [149] | 2012 | UK | Rabbits | Water decomposition; adipocere formation |
Azwandi et al. [150] | 2013 | Malaysia | Rats, rabbits, macaques | Insect inventory; succession; rat/rabbit/monkey comparison |
Barton et al. [151] | 2013 | Australia | Kangaroos | Carrion and biodiversity |
Benbow et al. [152] | 2013 | USA | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Bygarski and LeBlanc [153] | 2013 | Canada | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
Dekeirsschieter et al. [154] | 2013 | Belgium | Pigs | Rove beetle inventory; seasons |
von Hoermann et al. [155] | 2013 | Germany | Pigs | Carrion beetle attractants |
Hyde et al. [156] | 2013 | USA | Humans | Cadaver microbiome |
Johansen et al. [157] | 2013 | Norway | Mice | Blow fly attractants |
Johnson et al. [158] | 2013 | Australia | Pigs | Thermogenesis in cadavers |
Lowe et al. [159] | 2013 | Canada | Pigs | Textiles degradation on buried cadavers |
Matuszewski et al. [160]; Mądra et al. [161] | 2013, 2014 | Poland | Pigs | Insect inventory; habitats; seasons |
Metcalf et al. [162] | 2013 | USA | Mice | Cadaver microbiome |
Meyer et al. [163] | 2013 | USA | Pigs | Surface decomposition; seasons |
Sutherland et al. [164] | 2013 | South Africa | Pigs | Cadaver mass |
von der Luhe [165] | 2013 | Canada | Pigs | Compounds released into soil during decomposition |
Abouzied [166] | 2014 | Saudi Arabia | Rabbits | Insect inventory; seasons; succession |
Anderson and Bell [167] | 2014 | Canada | Pigs | Marine decomposition; arthropod inventory |
Bhadra et al. [168] | 2014 | England | Pigs (heads) | Colonisation patterns |
Caballero and León-Cortéz [169] | 2014 | Mexico | Pigs | Beetle inventory; succession; habitats |
Corrêa et al. [170] | 2014 | Brazil | Rabbits | Beetle inventory; seasons |
Farwig et al. [171] | 2014 | Germany | Mice | Biotic determinants of decomposition rate; seasons |
Matuszewski et al. [172, 173]; Mądra et al. [174] | 2014, 2016, 2015 | Poland | Pigs | Cadaver mass; clothing; insect inventory; long-term decomposition |
Mohr and Tomberlin [175, 176] | 2014, 2015 | USA | Pigs | Cadaver visitation by adult blow flies |
Oliveira-Costa et al. [177] | 2014 | Brazil | Pigs | Succession on burnt cadavers |
Pechal et al. [178] | 2014 | USA | Pigs | Delayed insect access; colonisation patterns; succession |
Pechal et al. [179] | 2014 | USA | Pigs | Cadaver microbiome |
Perrault et al. [180–182] | 2014, 2015 | Australia | Pigs | Volatiles of decomposition |
Whitaker [183] | 2014 | USA | Pigs, humans | Pig/human comparison of blow fly colonisation |
Young et al. [184] | 2014 | England | Deer | Scavenging |
Zurawski et al. [185] | 2014 | USA | Pigs | Nocturnal blow fly oviposition |
Agapiou et al. [186] | 2015 | Greece | Pigs | Volatiles of decomposition |
Alexander et al. [187] | 2015 | USA | Humans | Residual odour of decomposition in the soil |
Aubernon et al. [188] | 2015 | France | Rats | Blow fly development on contaminated cadaver |
Baz et al. [189] | 2015 | Spain | Squids | Insect inventory; habitats |
Card et al. [190] | 2015 | England | Pigs | Clothing |
Farrell et al. [191] | 2015 | Australia | Pigs | Insect inventory |
Hyde et al. [192] | 2015 | USA | Humans | Cadaver microbiome |
Iancu et al. [193] | 2015 | Romania | Pigs | Insect and microbe inventory; succession |
Iancu et al. [194] | 2015 | Romania | Pigs | Insect and microbe inventory; succession |
Lynch-Aird et al. [195] | 2015 | England | Pigs | Hanging cadaver decomposition |
Martin-Vega et al. [196] | 2015 | Spain | Squids | Clown beetle inventory; habitats |
Paczkowski et al. [197] | 2015 | Germany | Pigs | Volatiles of decomposition |
Roberts and Dabbs [198] | 2015 | USA | Pigs | Freezing |
Rysavy and Goff [199] | 2015 | Hawaii | Pigs | Underground decomposition; insect inventory |
Silahuddin et al. [200] | 2015 | Malaysia | Rabbits | Insect inventory; succession; habitats |
Stadler et al. [201] | 2015 | Canada | Pigs | Volatiles of decomposition |
Sukchit et al. [202] | 2015 | Thailand | Pigs | Insect inventory; habitats; succession; seasons; hanging; clothing |
Szpila et al. [203] | 2015 | Poland | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession |
Ueland et al. [204] | 2015 | Australia | Pigs | Textiles degradation on surface cadavers |
Zanetti et al. [205, 206] | 2015 | Argentina | Pigs | Underground decomposition; beetle inventory; seasons |
Zeariya et al. [207] | 2015 | Egypt | Rabbits, dogs | Insect inventory; succession; habitats |
Anderson and Bell [208] | 2016 | Canada | Pigs | Marine decomposition; seasons |
Cammack et al. [209] | 2016 | USA | Pigs | Concealment; seasons |
Lyu et al. [210] | 2016 | China | Pigs | Beetle inventory |
Mashaly [211] | 2016 | Egypt | Rabbits | Burnt cadaver decomposition; insect inventory; succession; habitats |
Metcalf et al. [212] | 2016 | USA | Mice, Humans | Cadaver microbiome |
Moffatt et al. [213] | 2016 | England | Pigs | Distribution of maggots length on carrion |
Parry et al. [214] | 2016 | South Africa | Fishes | Fly inventory; habitats; seasons |
Perez et al. [215] | 2016 | USA | Pigs | Distance between cadavers |
Weidner et al. [216] | 2016 | USA | Pigs | Blow fly colonisation timing |
Weiss et al. [217] | 2016 | USA | Pigs | Cadaver microbiome |
Vasconcelos et al. [218] | 2016 | Brazil | Pigs | Fly inventory |
Amendt et al. [219] | 2017 | Germany | Pigs | Thermal imaging of cadavers |
Connor et al. [220] | 2017 | USA | Pigs, humans | Human/pig comparison |
Fancher et al. [221] | 2017 | USA | Humans | Compounds released into soil during decomposition |
Marais-Werner et al. [222] | 2017 | South Africa | Pigs | Underground decomposition |
Martin-Vega et al. [223] | 2017 | Spain | Pigs | Colonisation patterns; seasons |
Mashaly [224] | 2017 | Saudi Arabia | Rabbits | Beetle inventory; habitats; succession |
McIntosh et al. [225] | 2017 | Australia | Pigs | Burnt cadaver decomposition; succession |
Michaud and Moreau [226] | 2017 | Canada | Pigs | Succession mechanisms |
Niederegger et al. [227] | 2017 | Germany | Pigs | Wounds |
Pacheco et al. [228] | 2017 | Canada | Pigs | Blow fly colonisation patterns |
Roberts et al. [229] | 2017 | USA | Humans | Cadaver mass |
Scholl and Moffatt [230] | 2017 | England | Pigs | Dismemberment; concealment in plastic sacks |
Wang et al. [231] | 2017 | China | Pigs, humans, rabbits | Human/pig/rabbit comparison; surface decomposition; succession; |
Wang et al. [232] | 2017 | China | Pigs | Exposure daytime; succession; |
Weidner et al. [233] | 2017 | USA | Pigs | Comparison of bait traps and cadaver inventories |
Cruise et al. [234, 235] | 2018 | USA | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; sampling techniques |
Dautartas et al. [236]; Steadman et al. [237] | 2018 | USA | Pigs, humans, rabbits | Human/pig/rabbit comparison; surface decomposition; scavenging |
Díaz-Aranda et al. [238] | 2018 | Spain | Pigs | Insect inventory; succession; seasons |
Frątczak-Łagiewska and Matuszewski [239] | 2018 | Poland | Pigs | Silphid beetles; succession; seasons; habitats |
von Hoermann et al. [240] | 2018 | Germany | Pigs | Carrion beetle inventory; habitats |
Knobel et al. [241] | 2018 | Australia | Pigs, humans | Decomposition rates; odour profiles; human/pig comparison |
Lee et al. [242] | 2018 | Australia | Pigs | Thermal imaging of cadavers |
Lutz et al. [243] | 2018 | Canada | Pigs | Beetle colonisation and breeding on concealed carcasses |
Mañas-Jordá et al. [244] | 2018 | Mexico | Pigs | Fly inventory; succession; habitats |
Marais-Werner et al. [245] | 2018 | South Africa | Pigs | Surface/underground decomposition |
Pérez-Marcos [246] | 2018 | Spain | Pigs, chickens | Fly inventory; pig/chicken comparison |
Salimi et al. [247] | 2018 | Iran | Rabbits | Insect inventory; succession; seasons; habitats |
Shayya [248] | 2018 | Lebanon | Pigs | Clown beetle inventory; succession; seasons; habitats |
Singh et al. [249] | 2018 | USA | Humans | Arthropod and microbe inventory and succession in the soil below a cadaver |
Spies et al. [250, 251] | 2018 | South Africa | Pigs | Scavenging |
Szelecz et al. [252, 253] | 2018 | Switzerland | Pigs | Compounds released into soil during decomposition; clown beetle colonisation of hanging and surface cadavers |
Lessons from pig cadavers
Method/technique | References | Pig cadaver use |
---|---|---|
Field protocol for experimental studies on PMI | Schoenly et al. [1, 2] | Tests of the protocol |
Model organisms | Watson and Carlton [3, 4] | Comparisons of different animals |
Schoenly et al. [2]; Wang et al. [5]; Connor et al. [6]; Dautartas et al. [7] | Comparisons of pigs and humans | |
Human-size insect trap for studying succession | Schoenly et al. [1] | Recorded trap microclimate and carrion-arthropod families caught by trap |
Device for sampling cadaver-related aquatic insects | Vance et al. [8] | Tests of trap efficiency in catching aquatic insects |
Degree-day index for decomposition related processes | Michaud and Moreau [9] | Development of the index and tests for its reliability |
Reconstruction of temperature conditions | Hofer et al. [10] | Reliability of temperature recordings on a death scene |
Temperature methods for insect pre-appearance interval (PAI) | Matuszewski [11, 12] | Development of PAI models; tests of the method |
Matuszewski and Szafałowicz [13]; Archer [14]; Matuszewski et al. [15] | Development of PAI models | |
Matuszewski and Mądra 2015 [16] | Tests of the protocols for PAI field studies | |
Matuszewski and Mądra-Bielewicz [17] | Validation of PAI methods | |
Total body score | Myburgh et al. [18] | Validation of the method |
Lynch-Aird et al. [19] | Development of TBS for hanging cadavers | |
Nawrocka et al. [20] | Inter-rater reliability of the TBS | |
Keough et al. [21] | Amendment of TBS for pig cadavers | |
Ribéreau-Gayon et al. [22] | Reliability of TBS based on cadaver pictures | |
PMI estimation based on insect succession | Michaud and Moreau [23] | Tests of predictability of insect occurrence based on degree-day accumulation |
Michaud and Moreau [24] | Tests of sampling protocols for field studies | |
Perez et al. [25] | Evaluation of utility of insect taxa for derivation of confidence intervals about PMI estimate | |
Mohr and Tomberlin [26] | Tests of oocyte development of adult blow flies visiting cadaver as a PMI indicator | |
Perez et al. [27] | Tests of minimum inter-cadaver distances for forensic field studies | |
Matuszewski [28] | Tests of presence/absence of insect taxa as an approach for PMI estimation | |
Mądra-Bielewicz et al. [29] | Tests of insect sex and size as PMI indicators | |
Cruise et al. [30] | Tests of the protocols for cadaver field studies | |
PMI estimation based on insect development | VanLaerhoven [31] | Validation of methods |
Reibe-Pal and Madea [32] | Comparison of methods | |
Weatherbee et al. [33] | Validation of methods | |
PMI estimation based on microbes | Pechal et al. [34] | Tests of usefulness of microbe succession for PMI estimation |
Exposed cadavers searching | Amendt et al. [35]; Lee et al. [36] | Tests of thermal imaging techniques used from the air |
Clandestine burial searching | Schultz et al. [37]; Schultz [38]; Salsarola et al. [39] | Tests of ground-penetrating radar |
Submerged cadavers searching | Healy et al. [40] | Tests of side-scan sonar |
Detection of gasoline in cadaver tissues | Pahor et al. [41] | Proof-of-concept tests |
Are pigs an appropriate model for forensic entomology and taphonomy?
Pig cadavers | Human cadavers | |
---|---|---|
Cons | 1. Dissimilar to human cadavers in some important aspects: a. Body proportions b. Gastrointestinal anatomy c. Diet (more uniform, larger proportion of plant products) 2. More uniform than humans 3. Unacceptable in some cultures | 1. Difficult to replicate: a. Available in low numbers b. Time and cause of death beyond researcher control (self-donation, age, disease incidence etc.) c. Dissimilar to each other in: • Mass • Age, sex, ethnicity • Antemortem pharmaceuticals use • Body conditions (frozen/fresh, autopsied/non-autopsied, etc.) 2. Limitations of taphonomy facilities (body farms): a. Small area, potential for insufficient inter-cadaver distances b. Uniform abiotic conditions c. Frequently non-natural conditions d. Area saturated with cadavers 3. Limitations of casework (i.e. medical examiner samples): a. Restricted to observation b. Cannot control effects of routine processing of remains c. Sometimes no information about death circumstances and the cadaver itself 4. Risk of sensationalized research a. Complex ethical considerations/generally unacceptable b. Potentially negative publicity c. Potential for findings to be “oversold” |
Pros | 1. Similar to human cadavers in some important aspects: a. Body mass range b. Anatomy c. Body composition d. Skin coverage with hair e. Gut microbiota f. Gross processes of decay 2. Easy to replicate: a. Cheap and available in large numbers b. Time and cause of death controllable c. Cadaver traits controllable d. Possible to work with unfrozen cadavers 3. Less sensationalized research and relatively straightforward ethical considerations | 1. No species-related differences |
Critique of the pig model as an analogue for human cadavers
Background
Experimental design
Confounded variables
Cadaver mass (kg) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pigs | Difference between humans and pigs in mean cadaver mass | Humans | |||||||
Mean | Range | V | Mean | Range | V | Dissimilarity score (h−p)/(h+p) | |||
Dautartas et al. [24] | Trial 1 | 64.6 | 60–68 | 4.8 | 13.2 | 77.8 | 72–84 | 6.1 | 0.093 |
Trial 2 | 49 | 40–59 | 14.1 | 25 | 74 | 53–107 | 30.8 | 0.203 | |
Trial 3 | 50.6 | 47–57 | 8.5 | 24.8 | 75.4 | 57–85 | 15.1 | 0.197 | |
Connor et al. [23] | 35 (median) | 25–64 | n/a | ≥ 45* (median) | n/a (≥ 80)* | n/a | n/a | 0.391* |
Independence of replicates. Distance between cadavers
Inter-annual effects
Subject variables
Quantifying decomposition
Statistical analysis and the presentation of results
Alternative model organisms
Recommendations
Research type/subtype | Guidelines | ||
---|---|---|---|
Cadaver species | Cadaver mass | ||
Experimental studies | Domestic pig, rabbit or rodents, depending on the objective of the study, human for model comparison experiments | Depending on study objective | |
Local insect inventory or succession studies, insect PAI studies | Early colonizers | Domestic pig, rabbit | No cadaver mass limitations |
Early and middle colonizers | Domestic pig | ≥ 20 kg starting mass, preferably 20–40 kg | |
All colonizers | Domestic pig | ≥ 40 kg starting mass, preferably 50–80 kg | |
Tests of forensic methods | Proof-of-concept studies | Domestic pig, rabbit or rodents, depending on method tested | Depending on method tested |
Initial validation studies | Domestic pig | 10–40 kg as juvenile analogues, 50–80 kg as adult analogues | |
Final validation studies | Human | Preferably whole mass range |