Decision to treat
A systematic literature review of English and non-English articles on DC published from September 1, 1960 until December 1, 2010 was conducted using Medline, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews [
46]. The review, which used American Society for Surgery of the Hand (ASSH) level of evidence criteria, considered factors that influence treatment decisions, such as number of fingers affected, type of joint, and severity of contracture, and also reviewed type of study, how the research question was determined, and level of evidence as a framework for analysis of the DC literature [
1,
54]. A decision tree for treatment of DC was constructed based on available evidence-based medicine for the three primary modalities, namely, fasciectomy, needle aponeurotomy, and CCH. Sixty-six percent (191/289) of peer-reviewed papers identified consisted of case series or expert opinion, and only 14 papers qualified by ASSH criteria for level 1 or level 2 evidence (8 fasciectomy, 5 CCH, 1 NP). This review revealed that as more treatment options become available, decision-making is hampered by a limited number of high-level studies and that sufficient data from prospective, randomized, clinical trials to guide clinicians who treat DC remains an unmet need. Until such time, important factors that influence treatment decisions include number/type of affected joints, severity of contracture/rate of progression, surgical history, and patient-centric issues.
CCH can be used to treat contractures that interfere with hand function and cause functional disability affecting ADLs or patient lifestyles, provided that the patient has both a palpable cord and no comorbidities that may interfere with treatment [
23]. In the CORD trials, patients had a palpable Dupuytren’s cord and at least 20° of MP or PIP contracture and were not able to simultaneously place the affected finger and palm flat on a table. MP contractures ≥30° and PIP contractures ≥20° usually result in a positive table-top test and interfere with hand function [
23]. An additional consideration for utilization of CCH is a web contracture that interferes with grasp or pinch. There is no contraindication to the use of CCH, but comorbidities to consider include coagulation disorders, use of anticoagulant, or chronic muscular, neurologic, or neuromuscular disorders affecting the hand.
Injection technique
The CCH injection technique was modified based on experience in the CORD I trial. It is recommended that the injection should be made with a 27-gauge, 1.25-mm (0.5 in.) needle. Cords of the little finger should be injected no more than 4 mm distal to the palmar crease and no deeper than 2 to 3 mm [
26]. In addition, the needle should be placed into the PIP cord on a horizontal plane and not vertically. Stabilizing the needle while pushing the plunger also helps to prevent injection through the cord [
24].
A REMS is a strategy designed to manage a known or potential serious risk associated with a drug or biological product. The REMS for CCH was developed to inform health care providers about the risks of tendon rupture, serious AEs affecting the injected extremity, and the potential risk of serious hypersensitivity reactions (including anaphylaxis) associated with CCH [
3]. The REMS communication plan includes a training guide and video for health care providers who are likely to prescribe CCH, including hand surgeons, orthopedic surgeons, plastic surgeons, general surgeons, and rheumatologists. REMS provides clinicians with instructions for properly preparing and injecting CCH and using the proper finger extension procedure to achieve cord disruption. Enrollment consists of three steps: (1) reviewing the training materials; (2) completing, signing, and faxing the physician enrollment form to be able to order CCH; and (3) completing, signing, and faxing the site enrollment form to register site(s) for shipping.
Finger extension technique
Skin lacerations are common and treatment-related lacerations occurred at a rate of 11 % in the clinical trials [
16]. Risk of skin tears is greater as severity of contracture increases, and these lacerations occurred primarily in patients who had experienced severe baseline contracture over many years [
27]. The cord can become adherent to the skin overlying the cord, which often becomes thin and more easily damaged [
19]. Thus, over-strenuous postinjection manipulation should be avoided to reduce the risk of skin laceration, which can also interfere with fitting a good splint because of pain. In the clinical trials, skin lacerations healed without treatment and did not affect clinical outcome. In the published 1-year postapproval surveillance review, skin tear was reported at a rate of 6.5 per 1,000 injections [
38].
Adherence to the recommended CCH postinjection standardized manipulation procedure is advised to reduce the risk of skin tear, especially in more advanced disease. The procedure for finger manipulation is also discussed in the REMS for CCH. Practitioner experience over time helps to reduce the incidence of skin tears, and follow-up care is very important in achieving the desired outcomes. Patients should be instructed to perform daily finger extension and flexion exercises during recovery and not to perform strenuous activity with the injected hand along with the proper, compliant use of nighttime splint.
Spontaneous cord rupture
Spontaneous cord rupture has occurred after CCH injection. Gill et al. retrospectively reviewed 36 consecutive patients (43 joints) treated with a standard injection of CCH, followed by a 24-h return visit [
20]. Average baseline MP and PIP contractures were 43.1° and 53.5°, respectively. Twenty-nine joints achieved full correction (20 MP, 9 PIP), and 7 patients had spontaneous cord rupture, resulting in full (4 patients) or partial correction (3 patients). Skin tear occurred in 3 of 36 patients. A recent MRI examination of cord structure in five patients who were treated with CCH and had no residual contracture after finger manipulation showed that CCH does not simply weaken the cord but actually causes disorganization and dissolution of the cord, which may help to explain the histologic basis for spontaneous cord rupture. MRI demonstrated discontinuity of the cord in all cases along with a significant reduction in cord volume from 670 to 188 mm
3 and a significant increase in signal intensity (demonstrating disorganization of cord collagen) from 632 to 2,021, an average of 320 %, which together showed both significant reductions in diseased tissue rather than simple cord division and significant disorganization of cord collagen [
35].
Splinting after CCH
Following the finger extension procedure(s), patients should be fitted with a splint and provided instructions for use at bedtime for up to 4 months to maintain finger extension [
3].
A recent study by Skirven et al. showed that treatment with CCH followed by gradual and progressive extension of the joint using a splint may be a more effective intervention strategy than passive extension used in the trials [
45]. Twenty-one patients (22 fingers) with a mean passive PIP joint contracture of 56° received one injection of CCH. Contracture was reduced to 22° at time of cord rupture, followed by further decreases in PIP contracture to a mean of 12° 1 week later. Only 22 to 25 % of PIP joints in the CORD trial achieved clinical success compared with 55 % of joints in this study. Although local anesthesia (lidocaine) was not mandated by protocol in the CORD trials, it was used in this study and may have contributed to better results compared with the CORD trials. The use of anesthesia was particularly effective during cord rupture because it allowed patients to better tolerate the postinjection manipulation and led to fewer injections.
Reimbursement
Because insurance coverage varies by payor and patient, health care providers should verify each patient’s health care benefits prior to initiating treatment. Individual plans may require a preauthorization evaluation. The general criteria include a letter of medical necessity, completion of a payor-specific prior authorization form, appropriate chart notes, history of past therapy and result, and a product information package insert. Medicare Part B patients do not require a preauthorization. Additionally, financial assistance may be available through the manufacturer for those patients who qualify.
Cost-effectiveness
Health care decisions are based not only on efficacy and safety but also on economic considerations. Since the introduction of CCH, postapproval studies have been conducted to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of CCH. Malone and Armstrong used a Markov decision model to determine the comparative cost-effectiveness of CCH, limited fasciectomy (LF), and percutaneous needle fasciotomy (PNF) [
33]. The study perspective was from that of a US payer. Patients were classified in the analysis based on clinical success after treatment, treatment failure resulting in revision, disease progression, and death. CCH was less expensive and associated with slightly more quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) than LF or PNF. Estimated mean costs over a 30-year period were US$4,489, US$18,345, and US$14,970 for CCH, LF, and PNF, respectively.
Ines et al. conducted a cost minimization study to estimate the cost of CCH versus fasciectomy in Portuguese patients with DC [
28]. The direct costs and inpatient cost of surgery as well as postsurgical costs associated with patient follow-up visits and physiotherapy were estimated. The direct cost of CCH included vials used, administration of injection in an outpatient setting, and outpatient follow-up visits. The primary determinates of direct cost favoring CCH over surgery were reduction in cost of inpatient services and postsurgical physiotherapy, and the indirect cost favoring CCH was loss of productivity due to time out of work. The overall savings of CCH over surgery was 1,674€. There was a slight advantage related to direct costs, but the main advantage was related to the indirect cost of productivity loss.
Productivity loss has been studied by Naam in a recently published retrospective, longitudinal study of at least 2 years duration that compared CCH (
n = 25) with fasciectomy (
n = 21) [
36]. Postprocedural follow-up averaged 32 months for CCH and 39 months for fasciectomy. Mean CCH postinjection contracture was 3.6° and 17.5° for MP and PIP joints, respectively, compared with 3.7° and 8.1° for fasciectomy, respectively. Patients treated with CCH returned to work at a mean of 1.9 days compared with 37.4 days after fasciectomy. There was no difference between groups related to type of work, no patient in the study met the criteria for recurrence (≥20° from time of joint correction), and no serious AEs were reported for either intervention.
Sau et al. conducted a cost-effectiveness study of CCH, LF, and PNF using a Markov model [
43]. Of the three treatment interventions, the analysis favored LF, with CCH and PNF costing an average of US$1,844 and US$247 more than LF, respectively. The model is sensitive to cost of surgery, which may have variable outcomes related to postsurgical complications and associated costs. LF is the most frequently used procedure by hand surgeons in the USA, but a drawback of this procedure is a cumulative complication rate estimated to be as high as 19 % [
50]. In addition, it is unclear whether recurrence was included in this model, a reported disadvantage of PNF, with an estimated recurrence rate as high as 85 % over 5 years [
51].
An assessment of the direct and indirect costs of employees with DC compared with a matched cohort of non-DC employees showed that employees with DC had higher comorbidity rates, health care utilization, and work loss than non-DC employees. These factors resulted in increased mean health care costs of approximately US$4,227 for DC vs non-DC patients over a 9-year survey period [
32], suggesting that the cost savings of early intervention should be weighed against the costs associated with prolonged, progressive DD.
De Salas-Cansado et al. conducted an analysis in Spanish patients to estimate the budget impact of CCH versus fasciectomy [
13]. The analysis showed a difference in cost favoring CCH over fasciectomy for a typical case to be 1,030€, with a substantial difference in 3-year overall base-case budgetary impact of 8,835,750€ for fasciectomy and 3,819,591€ for CCH, suggesting that CCH can result in a substantial savings as a noninvasive outpatient procedure.