Background
Spinal cord injury (SCI), a devastating event [
1], is acquired by almost half a million people each year worldwide [
2]. Besides motor recovery, i.e., the ability to walk or utilize the upper extremities, lower urinary tract (LUT) [
3,
4] and cardiovascular system (CVS) [
5] function are among the primary priorities for patients with SCI [
6]. Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) [
7], a severe, potentially life-threatening condition affecting the CVS following SCI that can occur more than 40 times a day [
8], is elicited by either noxious (e.g., pain) and innocuous stimuli (e.g., bladder filling) from below the level of injury [
9]. If misdiagnosed or poorly managed, AD can result in disastrous consequences [
10], including myocardial ischemia [
11], brain hemorrhage [
12], seizures [
13], and even death [
14].
Urodynamic investigation (UDI) is the gold standard to assess neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (NLUTD) in patients with SCI [
3,
4], but it may induce AD [
15,
16]. Considering that it is currently not possible to know in advance which patient will experience AD during UDI and, of those with AD, to what extent the systolic blood pressure (SBP) will increase, we aimed to determine the overall incidence and predictors of AD during UDI.
Discussion
In this prospective cohort study including 300 patients, we found a high incidence of AD in about two thirds of our patients with NLUTD due to suprasacral SCI. In addition, we identified the level of SCI as well as the presence of NDO as independent significant predictors to experience AD during UDI. Importantly, almost one third of our patients with AD had a lesion level below T6.
A high number of physicians and other healthcare professionals may not be aware of AD, unless their patient population includes individuals with SCI [
26]. Thus, the lack of experience with AD-related SBP changes might lead to misdiagnosed AD and even acceptance of the potential risk of life-threatening complications during UDI. Providing evidence on what constitutes an increased risk for experiencing AD during UDI, i.e., predictors, could lead to a safer way to perform UDI in this cohort. Most importantly, education regarding AD, i.e., knowledge transfer to physicians, other health professionals, caregivers, and especially patients and family members is crucial to raise awareness of AD so that AD-related complications during UDI and in everyday life (including emergency room admissions for “not feeling right” or urinary tract symptoms) can be minimized or prevented at best.
In contrast to episodic BP measurement, which has often been used to record AD during UDI [
27‐
29], continuous CVM provides a more accurate observation, as it allows one to detect short episodes of AD. The “beat-to-beat” technique allows the Finometer (via finger photoplethysmography) to monitor cardiovascular changes of SBP, DBP, and HR continuously and accurately according to the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Furthermore, the British Hypertension Society has recommended the Finometer for measurements in the clinical set-up and for research purposes. In line with Liu et al. [
9] and our previous study [
16], we used continuous CVM to document SBP, DBP, and HR, i.e., “beat-to-beat” recordings, throughout the entire investigation to immediately reveal AD. In fact, AD was detected during UDI in more than two thirds (204/300) of our patients. In contrast, previous literature measuring BP episodically reported incidence of AD between 37 and 43%. This lower incidence of AD might be attributed to intermittent instead of continuous CVM, as the former is likely to miss short-term episodes of AD [
27‐
29]. Evidence for this hypothesis is given, as we recently found a similarly high incidence of AD (73%) in women with NLUTD due to suprasacral SCI [
16]. Thus, AD during UDI in individuals with SCI seems to be generally underestimated, and this might put our patients at relevant risk if AD is not detected and appropriately managed.
Sympathetic pre-ganglionic neurons (SPNs) are regarded as the pivotal spinal neurons for central cardiovascular control [
30]. It is commonly believed that AD occurs in patients with SCI at or above T6 [
31,
32], and most studies have only presented data in this selected cohort [
9,
27,
29,
33]. However, AD can also occur in patients with a lesion level below T6, as the sympathetic outflow originates from T1 to L2 [
34] and supplies various regions, such as the heart (T1–T5) and urinary bladder (L1–L2) [
35]. Thus, similar to Huang et al. [
28], we also included patients with SCI below T6, and about one third of patients with AD in our study had a lesion below T6. The sympathetic postganglionic neurons, excited by SPNs, synapse with target organs, such as the heart and blood vessels, and hence are responsible for the innervation of the splanchnic vascular bed [
32]. The higher the level of injury, the more SPNs are likely to be independent of central inhibition. Therefore, a growing number of independent SPNs receiving afferent input from below the level of injury could provide the critical mass of vasoconstriction needed to elevate the SBP accordingly [
31]. To provide further evidence on the impact of lesion level on cardiovascular changes, increase in SBP from baseline in patients experiencing AD during UDI was highest in those with a cervical injury, followed by those with a thoracic and lumbar injury, respectively. In patients with a lesion below T6, it is thought that either sympathetic innervation of vascular structures remains sufficiently under supraspinal sympathetic control [
36], or the extent of disconnected vascular areas is reduced, leading to a normal inhibitory response to baroreceptor-mediated reflexes to maintain homeostasis.
AD can also be asymptomatic, known as silent AD [
29,
33]. Remarkably, 63% (129/204) of our patients with AD were asymptomatic. This condition can be very hazardous, because the discrepancy between cardiovascular changes and clinical symptoms might be misunderstood by physicians and therefore assigned incorrectly to other causes, which could lead to life-threatening situations. The group of 75 patients with symptomatic AD (37%) had significantly greater changes in all three cardiovascular domains, i.e., SPB, DBP, and HR, and consisted of more patients with a lesion level at or above T6 and complete lesions (AIS A) compared to those with asymptomatic AD.
Considering the distribution of the lesion level, i.e., at or above T6 vs. below T6, more patients who were asymptomatic had a lesion below T6. While preserved central control of SPNs allows inhibitory descending signals to counterattack the vasoconstriction, individuals with a lesion above T6 are lacking central control of SPNs that innervate the heart (T1–T5). The higher the lesion above T6, the more likely a patient will show a slowing down of the heartbeat, potentially result in bradycardia. This reflects the parasympathetic effort to respond to the sudden SBP increase in reducing the heart stroke volume through the vagal nerve. This may ultimately result in a deterioration of the patient’s condition.
In line with the literature [
37], our AD patients with an AIS A lesion demonstrated a significantly greater decrease in HR than those with an AIS B–D lesion, indicating that the greater the extent of the injury, i.e., the fewer efferent fibers are spared to uphold central sympathetic control of the heart, the greater the influence on HR by the parasympathetic nervous system. In contrast to our observation, Giannantoni et al. [
27] reported that AD did not correlate with the completeness of a lesion. These discrepancies might be attributed to differences in cardiovascular assessment, individual number, and characteristics of SCI, hampering a meaningful comparison but warranting further investigation of these issues. It should be acknowledged that the extent of an SCI reaches beyond the sensorimotor impairment. Whether an SCI is autonomic complete, i.e., supraspinal sympathetic control is entirely lost, or not seems to have a significant influence on blood pressure and heart rate. According to the review by West et al. [
38] in patients with chronic SCI, the autonomic completeness of SCI is more strongly related to cardiovascular function than neurological completeness of injury. However, we do not have enough data from all of our patients to investigate the effect of autonomic completeness on the incidence of AD and cardiovascular changes during UDI.
In line with Liu et al. [
15], we found significantly different cardiovascular changes in patients with NDO compared to those without. Being considered a major cause to trigger AD [
15] and leading to significant increases in arterial pressure [
39], NDO seems to pose a significant health risk to patients with SCI. This is clinically relevant, as most patients with SCI suffer from NDO [
40]. As a result of NDO, repeatedly increased intravesical pressures can lead to morphological changes of the urinary tract and increased risk of upper urinary tract complications in the long term [
4,
41]. The latter comprise vesico-uretero-renal reflux, hydronephrosis, impairment of renal functions, or at worst renal failure [
4]. Treatment of NDO, i.e., with antimuscarinic drugs and intradetrusor onabotulinumtoxinA injections, results in reduction of intravesical pressure, improves quality of life, and has been successfully implemented into clinical practice and guidelines [
3]. Given the potential of NDO to elicit AD, successful treatment of NDO could also have a positive effect on AD incidence and extent of related cardiovascular changes. In line with this hypothesis, Fougere et al. [
42] provided evidence of effectively reducing the frequency and severity of AD after intradetrusor onabotulinumtoxinA injections in patients with SCI. By improving LUT function and concurrently reducing cardiovascular responses to LUT stimuli, treatment of NDO appears to have the capacity to lower the risk for AD-related long-term complications.
Although to the best of our knowledge this is the largest prospective cohort study investigating AD using continuous cardiovascular changes in patients with suprasacral SCI suffering from NLUTD, some limitations should be addressed. Common conditions such as urinary tract infections, medications, and fluctuations of the neurological state can influence lower urinary tract function and consequently UDI and CVM parameters. Furthermore, as we only included those patients with SCI who are affected by NLUTD, which represents most SCI patients, it is difficult to say whether our results could also be extrapolated to SCI patients without NLUTD. Moreover, demonstrating the impact of SCI lesion level, completeness, and symptomatology of AD on cardiovascular changes during UDI, it would be of great interest to continuously monitor cardiovascular parameters during long-term ambulatory UDI to further assess the cardiovascular risk profile in patients with SCI.
Despite these limitations, our study is the first to provide evidence that AD during UDI is predictable by lesion level and presence of NDO. Our results clearly underline the importance of continuous CVM during UDI in all patients with suprasacral SCI and emphasize the relevance of proactive NDO treatment. In this way, AD can be detected earlier and more frequently, which subsequently could lead to fewer episodes of AD-related complications during diagnostic assessment or at best none. To further protect patients with SCI, continuous CVM should also be considered as standard surveillance during other diagnostic interventions such as cystoscopy [
9] and sperm retrieval [
43].
Conclusions
Considering all potential health risks associated with AD, such as seizures, stroke, retinal bleeding, or even death, we highly recommend continuous CVM during UDI in all patients with suprasacral SCI, since focusing on lesions at T6 or above would result in missing a relevant percentage of patients with AD. However, particular emphasis should be given to individuals with cervical lesions, as they are at highest risk for AD during UDI.
Given our previous experiences [
16,
21], we propose performing same session repeat UDI with continuous CVM, which allows one to provide the treating urologist with more precise information on the extent of NLUTD and cardiovascular changes during UDI.
Moreover, we advise considering appropriate treatment of NDO, not only to protect the upper urinary tract from potential long-term damage, but also to improve quality of life and decrease the risk of AD. Following our recommendations will also allow for revealing findings of cardiovascular risk factors in patients with silent AD and might subsequently reduce the risk of potentially life-threating complications related to sudden hypertension during AD.