Background
Methods
Enrolment procedure
Participants
Measures
Outcome variables
Predictor variables
Analysis
Results
Sample characteristics
Variable categories and variables | No onset of cannabis use | Onset of cannabis use |
OR (95% CI)
|
p
|
---|---|---|---|---|
n = 2,562 | n = 212 | |||
Demographics
| ||||
Age in yearsa, M (SD)
| 19.4 (1.2) | 19.3 (1.4) | 0.92 (0.82-1.05) | .21 |
Lower educational level (Ref.)b
| 1,892 (75.2%) | 149 (72.7%) | ||
Higher educational level | 623 (24.8%) | 56 (27.3%) | 1.14 (0.83-1.57) | .42 |
Living alone (Ref.)c
| 64 (2.5%) | 6 (2.9%) | ||
Living with parent or parents | 2,345 (92.2%) | 191 (91.4%) | 0.87 (0.37-2.03) | .75 |
Living with partner | 62 (2.4%) | 5 (2.4%) | 0.86 (0.25-2.96) | .81 |
Living with friends or in institution | 72 (2.8%) | 7 (3.3%) | 1.03 (0.33-3.25) | .95 |
Means of subsistence: own person (Ref.)d
| 618 (24.3%) | 30 (14.4%) | ||
Own person and others persons or institutions | 1,030 (40.6%) | 83 (39.7%) | 1.66 (1.08-2.55) | .02 |
Other persons or institutions | 891 (35.1%) | 96 (45.9%) | 2.22 (1.46-3.39) | <.01 |
Not living in a partnership (Ref.)e
| 2,437 (96.0%) | 198 (94.7%) | ||
Living in a partnership | 102 (4.0%) | 11 (5.3%) | 1.33 (0.70-2.51) | .39 |
Having no siblings (Ref.)f
| 164 (6.6%) | 5 (2.5%) | ||
One or two siblings | 1,873 (75.6%) | 163 (81.5%) | 2.85 (1.16-7.05) | .02 |
Three or more siblings | 440 (17.8%) | 32 (16.0%) | 2.38 (0.91-6.23) | .08 |
Religion and religiosity
| ||||
Christian religion (Ref.)g
| 1,929 (76.5%) | 161 (78.2%) | ||
Muslim religion | 123 (4.9%) | 6 (2.9%) | 0.58 (0.25-1.35) | .21 |
Other religion | 54 (2.1%) | 7 (3.4%) | 1.55 (0.70-3.47) | .28 |
No religion | 415 (16.5%) | 32 (15.5%) | 0.92 (0.62-1.37) | .69 |
Atheist (Ref.)h
| 611 (24.2%) | 61 (29.6%) | ||
Agnostic | 387 (15.3%) | 29 (14.1%) | 0.75 (0.47-1.19) | .22 |
Unsure what to think about god | 304 (12.0%) | 31 (15.0%) | 1.02 (0.65-1.61) | .93 |
Belief in god but not practicing | 808 (32.0%) | 67 (32.5%) | 0.83 (0.58-1.19) | .32 |
Belief in god and practicing | 413 (16.4%) | 18 (8.7%) | 0.44 (0.25-0.75) | <.01 |
Health
| ||||
Physical health (SF-12, scale 0-100)i, M (SD)
| 55.0 (5.1) | 55.1 (5.3) | 1.00 (0.98-1.03) | .77 |
Mental health (SF-12, scale 0-100)j, M (SD)
| 50.5 (8.3) | 49.3 (7.7) | 0.98 (0.97-1.00) | .04 |
Depression (MDI, scale 0-50)k, M (SD)
| 6.1 (6.8) | 7.7 (7.5) | 1.03 (1.01-1.05) | <.01 |
Low physical activity (IPAQ) (Ref.)l
| 249 (10.6%) | 16 (7.9%) | ||
Moderate physical activity | 583 (24.9%) | 56 (27.7%) | 1.50 (0.84-2.66) | .17 |
High physical activity | 1,510 (64.5%) | 130 (64.4%) | 1.34 (0.78-2.29) | .29 |
No attention deficit syndrome (ASRS) (Ref.)m
| 2,494 (97.5%) | 201 (95.3%) | ||
Attention deficit syndrome | 65 (2.5%) | 10 (4.7%) | 1.91 (0.97-3.77) | .06 |
No anti-social personality disorder (Ref.)n
| 2,317 (91.4%) | 174 (84.1%) | ||
Anti-social personality disorder | 217 (8.6%) | 33 (15.9%) | 2.03 (1.36-3.01) | <.01 |
Social context
| ||||
Grew up with both parents (Ref.)o
| 2,105 (83.1%) | 155 (74.2%) | ||
…with parent and step-parent | 101 (4.0%) | 20 (9.6%) | 2.69 (1.62-4.46) | <.01 |
…with one parent | 297 (11.7%) | 33 (15.8%) | 1.51 (1.02-2.24) | .04 |
…with adoptive or foster parents or in institution | 30 (1.2%) | 1 (0.5%) | 0.45 (0.06-3.34) | .44 |
No parental divorce before the age of 18 (Ref.)p
| 2,053 (81.2%) | 142 (68.9%) | ||
Parental divorce before the age of 18 | 476 (18.8%) | 64 (31.1%) | 1.94 (1.42-2.65) | <.01 |
Lower educational level of the father (Ref.)q
| 1,419 (56.3%) | 99 (46.7%) | ||
Higher educational level of the father | 1,103 (43.1%) | 108 (50.9%) | 1.40 (1.06-1.86) | .02 |
Lower educational level of the mother (Ref.)r
| 1,559 (62.0%) | 110 (52.9%) | ||
Higher educational level of the mother | 956 (38.0%) | 98 (47.1%) | 1.45 (1.09-1.93) | .01 |
Financial situation of the family (Scale 1-7)s, M (SD)
| 3.6 (1.0) | 3.5 (1.0) | 0.92 (0.79-1.06) | .22 |
Good relationship with parents before the age of 18 (Ref.)t
| 2,115 (82.8%) | 166 (78.3%) | ||
Bad relationship with parents before the age of 18 | 438 (17.2%) | 46 (21.7%) | 1.34 (0.95-1.88) | .10 |
Lower parental rule setting at the age of 15 (Ref.)u
| 972 (38.1%) | 94 (44.3%) | ||
Higher parental rule setting at the age of 15 | 1,579 (61.9%) | 118 (55.7%) | 0.77 (0.58-1.03) | .08 |
Lower parental knowledge of peers and the | ||||
whereabouts at the age of 15 (Ref.)v
| 491 (19.2%) | 55 (25.9%) | ||
Higher parental knowledge of peers and the | ||||
whereabouts at the age of 15 | 2,060 (80.4%) | 157 (74.1%) | 0.68 (0.49-0.94) | .02 |
No psychiatric problem of father at age of 15 (Ref.)w
| 2,401 (94.2%) | 198 (93.8%) | ||
Psychiatric problem of father at age of 15 | 147 (5.8%) | 13 (6.2%) | 1.07 (0.60-1.93) | .81 |
No psychiatric problem of mother at age of 15 (Ref.)x
| 2,471 (97.1%) | 197 (93.8%) | ||
Psychiatric problem of mother at age of 15 | 75 (2.9%) | 13 (6.2%) | 2.17 (1.19-3.99) | .01 |
No psychiatric problem of peer/s at age of 15 (Ref.)y
| 1,672 (66.1%) | 124 (59.6%) | ||
Psychiatric problem in the peer/s at the age of 15 | 857 (33.9%) | 84 (40.4%) | 1.32 (0.99-1.76) | .06 |
Peer pressure (PPI total score, range -3 - +3)z, | ||||
M (SD)
| 0.2 (0.4) | 0.3 (0.5) | 2.13 (1.47-3.08) | <.01 |
Substance use
| ||||
Never used alcohol (Ref.)aa
| 368 (15.4%) | 21 (10.0%) | ||
Have used alcohol | 2,021 (84.6%) | 189 (90.0%) | 1.64 (1.03-2.61) | .04 |
No alcohol use in the previous 12 months (Ref.)ab
| 150 (6.3%) | 7 (3.4%) | ||
Alcohol use - not at risk (AUDIT-C) | 847 (35.7%) | 58 (28.0%) | 1.47 (0.66-3.28) | .35 |
Alcohol use - at risk (AUDIT-C) | 1,376 (58.0%) | 142 (68.6%) | 2.21 (1.02-4.81) | .04 |
Never used any tobacco product (Ref.) | 1,692 (66.0%) | 102 (48.1%) | ||
Have used a tobacco product | 870 (34.0%) | 110 (51.9%) | 2.10 (1.58-2.78) | <.01 |
No cigarette use in the previous 12 months (Ref.)ac
| 2,037 (81.6%) | 132 (65.0%) | ||
Very low nicotine dependence (FTND) | 351 (14.1%) | 63 (31.0%) | 2.77 (2.01-3.82) | <.01 |
Low, moderate or high nicotine dependence (FTND) | 109 (4.4%) | 8 (3.9%) | 1.13 (0.54-2.37) | .74 |
Never used drugs other than cannabis (Ref.)ad
| 2,429 (95.7%) | 194 (92.8%) | ||
Used drugs other than cannabis | 108 (4.3%) | 15 (7.2%) | 1.74 (0.99-3.04) | .05 |
Personality
| ||||
Sensation seeking (BSSS total score, range 1-5)ae, | ||||
M (SD)
| 2.8 (0.8) | 3.1 (0.8) | 1.70 (1.43-2.02) | <.01 |
Aggression (ZKPQ, subscale, range 0-10)af, M (SD)
| 3.8 (2.2) | 4.0 (2.2) | 1.04 (0.98-1.11) | .24 |
Sociability (ZKPQ, subscale, range 0-10)ag, M (SD)
| 5.6 (2.3) | 6.0 (2.1) | 1.08 (1.01-1.15) | .02 |
Anxiety (ZKPQ, subscale, range 0-10)ah, M (SD)
| 1.9 (1.9) | 2.1 (2.2) | 1.08 (1.01-1.15) | .03 |
Military training school
| ||||
Not started yet (Ref.)ai
| 388 (23.6%) | 34 (27.9%) | ||
Started | 256 (15.5%) | 14 (11.5%) | 0.62 (0.33-1.19) | .15 |
Finished | 897 (54.5%) | 61 (50.0%) | 0.78 (0.50-1.20) | .25 |
Discontinued | 106 (6.4%) | 13 (10.7%) | 1.40 (0.71-2.75) | .33 |
Variable categories and variables | No onset of drug use | Onset of drug use |
OR (95% CI)
|
p
|
---|---|---|---|---|
n = 4,032 | n = 222 | |||
Demographics
| ||||
Age in yearsa, M (SD)
| 19.4 (1.2) | 19.4 (1.3) | 0.97 (0.87-1.09) | .64 |
Lower educational level (Ref.)b
| 2,911 (73.5%) | 158 (72.1%) | ||
Higher educational level | 1,048 (26.5%) | 61 (27.9%) | 1.07 (0.79-1.45) | .65 |
Living alone (Ref.)c
| 112 (2.8%) | 10 (4.5%) | ||
Living with parent or parents | 3,660 (91.4%) | 193 (87.3%) | 0.59 (0.30-1.15) | .12 |
Living with partner | 92 (2.3%) | 9 (4.1%) | 1.10 (0.43-2.81) | .85 |
Living with friends or in institution | 140 (3.5%) | 9 (4.1%) | 0.72 (0.28-1.83) | .49 |
Means of subsistence: own person (Ref.)d
| 879 (22.0%) | 42 (19.0%) | ||
Own person and others persons or institutions | 1,664 (41.6%) | 101 (45.7%) | 1.27 (0.88-1.84) | .20 |
Other persons or institutions | 1,457 (36.4%) | 78 (35.3%) | 1.12 (0.76-1.65) | .56 |
Not living in a partnership (Ref.)e
| 3,827 (95.7%) | 210 (95.0%) | ||
Living in a partnership | 173 (4.3%) | 11 (5.0%) | 1.16 (0.62-2.17) | .64 |
Having no siblings (Ref.)f
| 253 (6.5%) | 17 (7.9%) | ||
One or two siblings | 2,965 (76.0%) | 163 (75.8%) | 0.82 (0.49-1.37) | .45 |
Three or more siblings | 685 (17.6%) | 35 (16.3%) | 0.76 (0.42-1.38) | .37 |
Religion and religiosity
| ||||
Christian religion (Ref.)g
| 2,967 (74.5%) | 162 (75.0%) | ||
Muslim religion | 173 (4.3%) | 3 (1.4%) | 0.32 (0.10-1.01) | .05 |
Other religion | 91 (2.3%) | 1 (0.5%) | 0.20 (0.03-1.45) | .11 |
No religion | 751 (18.9%) | 50 (23.1%) | 1.22 (0.88-1.69) | .24 |
Atheist (Ref.)h
| 1,050 (26.4%) | 72 (33.3%) | ||
Agnostic | 676 (17.0%) | 37 (17.1%) | 0.80 (0.53-1.20) | .28 |
Unsure what to think about god | 506 (12.7%) | 24 (11.1%) | 0.69 (0.43-1.11) | .13 |
Belief in god but not practicing | 1,228 (30.8%) | 73 (33.8%) | 0.87 (0.62-1.21) | .41 |
Belief in god and practicing | 523 (13.1%) | 10 (4.6%) | 0.28 (0.14-0.55) | <.01 |
Health
| ||||
Physical health (SF-12, scale 0-100)i, M (SD)
| 55.0 (5.1) | 55.0 (5.1) | 0.98 (0.96-1.01) | .20 |
Mental health (SF-12, scale 0-100)j, M (SD)
| 50.1 (8.3) | 48.4 (8.6) | 0.98 (0.96-0.99) | <.01 |
Depression (MDI, scale 0-50)k, M (SD)
| 6.5 (6.7) | 8.2 (7.0) | 1.03 (1.02-1.05) | <.01 |
Low physical activity (IPAQ) (Ref.)l
| 377 (10.1%) | 22 (11.1%) | ||
Moderate physical activity | 956 (25.6%) | 54 (27.1%) | 0.97 (0.58-1.61) | .90 |
High physical activity | 2,402 (64.3%) | 123 (61.8%) | 0.88 (0.55-1.40) | .58 |
No attention deficit syndrome (ASRS) (Ref.)m
| 3,897 (96.9%) | 207 (93.2%) | ||
Attention deficit syndrome | 126 (3.1%) | 15 (6.8%) | 2.24 (1.29-3.90) | <.01 |
No anti-social personality disorder (Ref.)n
| 3,530 (88.2%) | 160 (74.1%) | ||
Anti-social personality disorder | 471 (11.8%) | 56 (25.9%) | 2.62 (1.91-3.61) | <.01 |
Social context
| ||||
Grew up with both parents (Ref.)o
| 3,228 (80.6%) | 169 (77.9%) | ||
…with parent and step-parent | 204 (5.1%) | 14 (6.5%) | 1.31 (0.75-2.30) | .35 |
…with one parent | 533 (13.3%) | 30 (13.8%) | 1.08 (0.72-1.60) | .72 |
…with adoptive or foster parents or in institution | 39 (1.0%) | 4 (1.8%) | 1.96 (0.69-5.55) | .21 |
No parental divorce before the age of 18 (Ref.)p
| 3,101 (77.6%) | 159 (73.6%) | ||
Parental divorce before the age of 18 | 895 (22.4%) | 57 (26.4%) | 1.24 (0.91-1.70) | .17 |
Lower educational level of the father (Ref.)q
| 2,095 (52.6%) | 106 (48.8%) | ||
Higher educational level of the father | 1,887 (47.4%) | 111 (51.2%) | 1.16 (0.89-1.53) | .28 |
Lower educational level of the mother (Ref.)r
| 2,365 (59.5%) | 116 (53.7%) | ||
Higher educational level of the mother | 1,610 (40.5%) | 100 (46.3%) | 1.27 (0.96-1.67) | .09 |
Financial situation of the family (Scale 1-7)s, M (SD)
| 3.6 (1.0) | 3.5 (1.0) | 0.95 (0.83-1.09) | .44 |
Good relationship with parents before the age of 18 (Ref.)t
| 3,264 (81.2%) | 165 (74.3%) | ||
Bad relationship to parents before age of 18 | 758 (18.8%) | 57 (25.7%) | 1.49 (1.09-2.03) | .01 |
Lower parental rule setting at the age of 15 (Ref.)u
| 1,572 (39.1%) | 103 (46.4%) | ||
Higher parental rule setting at the age of 15 | 2,448 (60.9%) | 119 (53.6%) | 0.74 (0.57-0.97) | .03 |
Lower parental knowledge of peers and the | ||||
whereabouts at the age of 15 (Ref.)v
| 899 (22.4%) | 78 (35.1%) | ||
Higher parental knowledge of peers and the | ||||
whereabouts at the age of 15 | 3,120 (77.6%) | 144 (64.9%) | 0.53 (0.40-0.71) | <.01 |
No psychiatric problem of father at age of 15 (Ref.)w
| 3,747 (93.5%) | 199 (90.5%) | ||
Psychiatric problem of father at age of 15 | 261 (6.5%) | 21 (9.5%) | 1.52 (0.95-2.42) | .08 |
No psychiatric problem of mother at age of 15(Ref.)x
| 3,857 (96.2%) | 207 (94.1%) | ||
Psychiatric problem of mother at age of 15 | 152 (3.8%) | 13 (5.9%) | 1.59 (0.89-2.86) | .12 |
No psychiatric problem of peer/s at age of 15 (Ref.)y
| 2,483 (62.2%) | 96 (44.9%) | ||
Psychiatric problem of peer/s at age of 15 | 1,511 (37.8%) | 118 (55.1%) | 2.02 (1.53-2.66) | <.01 |
Peer pressure (PPI total score, range -3 - +3)z, | ||||
M (SD)
| 0.28 (0.39) | 0.39 (0.44) | 2.03 (1.44-2.87) | <.01 |
Substance use
| ||||
Never used alcohol (Ref.)aa
| 438 (11.4%) | 12 (5.5%) | ||
Have used alcohol | 3,416 (88.6%) | 207 (94.5%) | 2.21 (1.23-3.99) | .01 |
No alcohol use in the previous 12 months (Ref.)ab
| 173 (4.5%) | 4 (1.8%) | ||
Alcohol use - not at risk (AUDIT-C) | 1,095 (28.6%) | 29 (13.2%) | 1.15 (0.40-3.30) | .80 |
Alcohol use - at risk (AUDIT-C) | 2,563 (66.9%) | 186 (84.9%) | 3.14 (1.15-8.55) | .03 |
Never used any tobacco product (Ref.) | 1,944 (48.2%) | 69 (31.1%) | ||
Have used a tobacco product | 2,089 (51.8%) | 153 (68.9%) | 2.06 (1.54-2.76) | <.01 |
No cigarette use in the previous 12 months (Ref.)ac
| 2,495 (63.9%) | 91 (42.7%) | ||
Very low nicotine dependence (FTND) | 1,048 (26.8%) | 83 (39.0%) | 2.17 (1.60-2.95) | <.01 |
Low, moderate or high nicotine dependence (FTND) | 362 (9.3%) | 39 (18.3%) | 2.95 (2.00-4.37) | <.01 |
Never used cannabis (Ref.)ad
| 2,513 (62.4%) | 76 (34.4%) | ||
Have used cannabis | 1,515 (37.6%) | 145 (65.6%) | 3.17 (2.38-4.21) | <.01 |
No cannabis use in previous 12 months (Ref.)ae
| 3,204 (79.5%) | 106 (47.7%) | ||
No problem use (CUDIT) | 688 (17.1%) | 86 (38.7%) | 3.78 (2.81-5.08) | <.01 |
Problem use (CUDIT) | 140 (3.5%) | 30 (13.5%) | 6.48 (4.18-10.05) | <.01 |
Personality
| ||||
Sensation seeking (BSSS total score, range 1-5)af, | ||||
M (SD)
| 2.9 (0.8) | 3.4 (0.9) | 1.88 (1.59-2.24) | <.01 |
Aggression (ZKPQ, subscale, range 0-10)ag, M (SD)
| 4.0 (2.2) | 4.5 (2.2) | 1.10 (1.04-1.17) | <.01 |
Sociability (ZKPQ, subscale, range 0-10)ah, M (SD)
| 5.8 (2.2) | 6.0 (2.1) | 1.04 (0.98-1.11) | .23 |
Anxiety (ZKPQ, subscale, range 0-10)ai, M (SD)
| 1.9 (1.9) | 2.2 (2.0) | 1.09 (1.02-1.16) | .01 |
Military training school
| ||||
Not started yet (Ref.)aj
| 611 (24.0%) | 36 (27.7%) | ||
Started | 360 (14.1%) | 12 (9.2%) | 0.57 (0.29-1.10) | .09 |
Finished | 1,405 (55.1%) | 73 (56.2%) | 0.88 (0.59-1.33) | .55 |
Discontinued | 175 (6.9%) | 9 (6.9%) | 0.87 (0.41-1.85) | .72 |
Univariate predictors of the onset of cannabis and other illegal drug use
Multivariate predictors of the onset of cannabis use
Variable categories and variables | Separate model for each variable category | Overall modela,b
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) |
p
| OR (95% CI) |
p
| |
Demographics
c
| ||||
Means of subsistence: own person (Ref.) | ||||
Own person and others persons or institutions | 1.75 (1.12-2.72) | .01 | 1.87 (1.16-3.00) | .01 |
Other persons or institutions | 2.27 (1.47-3.52) | <.01 | 2.68 (1.66-4.34) | <.01 |
Having no siblings (Ref.) | ||||
One or two siblings | 2.86 (1.16-7.08) | .02 | 3.14 (1.24-7.95) | .02 |
Three or more siblings | 2.53 (0.97-6.61) | .06 | 3.04 (1.12-8.16) | .03 |
Religion and religiosity
d
| ||||
Atheist (Ref.) | ||||
Agnostic | 0.75 (0.47-1.19) | .22 | 0.64 (0.39-1.06) | .09 |
Unsure what to think about god | 1.02 (0.65-1.61) | .93 | 1.02 (0.63-1.65) | .94 |
Belief in god but not practicing | 0.83 (0.58-1.19) | .32 | 0.78 (0.53-1.17) | .23 |
Belief in god and practicing | 0.44 (0.25-0.75) | <.01 | 0.54 (0.31-0.96) | .04 |
Health
e
| ||||
Depression (MDI, scale 0–50) | 1.03 (1.01-1.04) | <.01 | 1.03 (1.01-1.05) | <.01 |
No anti-social personality disorder (Ref.) | ||||
Anti-social personality disorder | 1.87 (1.25-2.80) | <.01 | ||
Social context
f
| ||||
No parental divorce before the age of 18 (Ref.) | ||||
Parental divorce before the age of 18 | 1.89 (1.37-2.61) | <.01 | 2.03 (1.44-2.87) | .04 |
Lower educational level of the father (Ref.) | ||||
Higher educational level of the father | 1.38 (1.03-1.85) | .03 | ||
Lower parental knowledge of peers and the whereabouts at the age of 15 (Ref.) | ||||
Higher parental knowledge of peers and the whereabouts at the age of 15 | 0.69 (0.49-0.97) | .03 | 0.69 (0.48-0.99) | <.01 |
Peer pressure (PPI total score, range -3 - +3) | 2.08 (1.43-3.04) | <.01 | 1.56 (1.03-2.36) | .04 |
Substance use
g
| ||||
No cigarette use in the previous 12 months (Ref.) | ||||
Very low nicotine dependence (FTND) | 2.77 (2.01-3.82) | <.01 | 2.60 (1.83-3.69) | <.01 |
Low, moderate or high nicotine dependence (FTND) | 1.13 (0.54-2.37) | .74 | 1.31 (0.60-2.84) | .50 |
Personality
h
| ||||
Sensation seeking (BSSS total score, range 1–5) | 1.71 (1.44-2.04) | <.01 | 1.55 (1.28-1.89) | <.01 |
Anxiety (ZKPQ, subscale, range 0–10) | 1.09 (1.02-1.17) | .02 | ||
Military training school
|
Multivariate predictors of the onset of illegal drug use other than cannabis
Variable categories and variables | Separate model for each variable category | Overall modela,b
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) |
p
| OR (95% CI) |
p
| |
Demographics
| ||||
Religion and religiosity
c
| ||||
Atheist (Ref.) | ||||
Agnostic | 0.80 (0.53-1.20) | .28 | ||
Unsure what to think about god | 0.69 (0.43-1.11) | .13 | ||
Belief in god but not practicing | 0.87 (0.62-1.21) | .41 | ||
Belief in god and practicing | 0.28 (0.14-0.55) | <.01 | ||
Health
d
| ||||
Depression (MDI, scale 0–50) | 1.03 (1.01-1.04) | <.01 | 1.02 (1.00-1.04) | .02 |
No attention deficit syndrome (ASRS) (Ref.) | ||||
Attention deficit syndrome | 1.84 (1.04-3.27) | .04 | ||
No anti-social personality disorder (Ref.) | ||||
Anti-social personality disorder | 2.50 (1.81-3.46) | <.01 | 1.51 (1.06-2.13) | .02 |
Social context
e
| ||||
Lower parental knowledge of peers and the | ||||
whereabouts at the age of 15 (Ref.) | ||||
Higher parental knowledge of peers and the | ||||
whereabouts at the age of 15 | 0.58 (0.44-0.79) | <.01 | 0.73 (0.54-1.00) | .05 |
No psychiatric problem of peer/s at age of 15 (Ref.) | ||||
Psychiatric problem of peer/s at age of 15 | 1.82 (1.37-2.42) | <.01 | 1.53 (1.15-2.05) | <.01 |
Peer pressure (PPI total score, range -3 - +3) | 1.79 (1.26-2.54) | <.01 | ||
Substance use
f
| ||||
No cigarette use in the previous 12 months (Ref.) | ||||
Very low nicotine dependence (FTND) | 1.19 (0.84-1.69) | .32 | ||
Low, moderate or high nicotine dependence (FTND) | 1.58 (1.02-2.43) | .04 | ||
No cannabis use in the previous 12 months (Ref.)ab
| ||||
Low cannabis dependence (CUDIT) | 3.92 (2.90-5.31) | <.01 | 3.01 (2.20-4.10) | <.01 |
Moderate or high cannabis dependence (CUDIT) | 7.08 (4.54-11.03) | <.01 | 4.13 (2.59-6.57) | <.01 |
Personality
g
| ||||
Sensation seeking (BSSS total score, range 1–5) | 1.90 (1.60-2.26) | <.01 | 1.49 (1.23-1.79) | <.01 |
Anxiety (ZKPQ, subscale, range 0–10) | 1.11 (1.04-1.18) | <.01 | ||
Military training school
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