Introduction
People with substance misuse problems often have co-existing physical and/or mental health conditions [
1,
2], and are prescribed a large number of medications which may sometimes not be justified [
3]. Service users who seek treatment in specialist addiction clinics are more likely to have higher levels of dependence and complex needs that include social problems, functional impairment, comorbidities and use of multiple medications when compared with those who do not seek help [
4,
5]. These complex needs may influence prescribing decisions made for this population [
6]. For instance, prescribing may be targeted at maintaining equilibrium in the lives of service users, which may lead to prescribing outside of guideline recommendations. Furthermore, service users may want certain medications such as opioids and benzodiazepines prescribed for non-medical reasons [
7,
8].
Opioids used in pain treatment and benzodiazepines for mental health problems have been implicated in the occurrence of adverse events in people with substance misuse problems. Benzodiazepines, antidepressants, antipsychotics and substances such as alcohol have often been found to be used in combination with opioids such as dihydrocodeine and oxycodone in opioid-related overdose and fatalities [
9‐
11]. Antidepressant prescriptions, especially tricyclic antidepressants (hereafter TCAs), have also been linked to heroin overdose [
12,
13].
The large number of people entering specialist addiction services with complex needs and multiple prescriptions provides an important opportunity for exploring addiction service prescribers’ views and experiences of assessing the appropriateness of medications prescribed for service users coming in for treatment as well as the differences between the various types of prescribers. Prescribers included in this study were medical and non-medical. The non-medical prescribers (NMPs) were independent nurse prescribers who could assess and also devise a treatment plan that may include prescribing for service users [
14]. NMPs prescribe within their areas of competence [
15]. For instance, nurse prescribers working in addiction medicine are able to prescribe substitute opioids, relapse prevention medications, medications for detoxification and vitamin supplements.
Assessment of the clinical appropriateness of non-medical prescribing, including nurse prescribing, have concluded that NMPs generally make clinically appropriate prescribing decisions [
16,
17]. However, history taking, assessment and diagnosis skills have been highlighted as areas for further attention.
Service users visiting the service could self-refer or be referred from a range of sources such as general practitioners, psychiatrists, hospital, social services, drug services and the criminal justice system. Consequently, this study explored specialist addiction service prescribers’ views and experiences of assessing the appropriateness of medications prescribed by others.
Aim
This study explored specialist addiction service prescribers’ views and experiences of assessing the appropriateness of medications prescribed for service users coming in for treatment as well as the differences between prescribers. Appropriateness was considered to involve maximising effectiveness, minimising risks and costs, and respecting the patient’s choice [
18].
Ethics approval
The study was approved by the University of York’s Research Governance Committee and the National Research Ethics Service (NRES) Committee Yorkshire & The Humber. Reference 12/YH/0325.
Discussion
The evidence from this study shows that the assessment of the appropriateness of prescribed medications is a complex judgment. Besides a few more experienced doctors, all other prescribers (doctors and nurse prescribers) tended to review only the subset of medications which they saw as within their competency. It has been recommended that doctors and nurse prescribers adhere to their areas of competency for safe practice [
22,
23]. Nurse prescribers and doctors appeared to be working within their competency.
Published evidence suggests non-medical prescribers generally make clinically appropriate prescribing decisions with the need for further improvement in assessment, diagnosis and history-taking skills [
16,
17]. Nurse prescribers described referring service users who they had concerns about their medications to doctors at the specialist addiction service or service users’ GPs. Specialist addiction service doctors particularly represented a valuable source of support to nurse prescribers when dealing with issues around prescribing. The more junior doctors (non-consultants) also relied on their senior colleagues, especially consultant addiction psychiatrists, for expert advice on medications. There was further evidence that prescribers were a sort of ‘safety net’ against medication-related risks as they intervened and contacted GPs if they found serious problems with service users’ medications.
Service users pose particular challenges in terms of complexity and risk issues. They often have complex needs including severe comorbid mental and physical health problems [
24‐
29]. In order to meet these needs, Public Health England [
23] has recommended that addiction specialist doctors such as consultant psychiatrists work alongside non-medical prescribers and other doctors in a multidisciplinary team. The drug and alcohol treatment system has however undergone some changes in commissioning in recent years. This has involved a move from mainly NHS service provision to a more mixed economy of service providers [
23]. These changes have led to a decrease in the number of doctors including consultant addiction psychiatrists in treatment systems [
23], with nurses taking on more prescribing roles. Consequently, there is a reduction in the capacity of these new treatment systems for specialist expertise and complex case management.
It appears that there is a possibility of reduction in the quality of prescribing and decision-making as a result of these changes as nurse prescribers and GPs may not have ready access to support and specialist knowledge when required. The potential for specialists to provide clinical supervision that will support nurse prescribers in making clinically appropriate decisions when needed is also hampered. It appears future prescribing practice in alcohol and drug treatment systems will mostly involve nurse prescribers. This raises concerns about the future review practices of psychiatric medications in addiction services if nurse prescribers are not further strengthened to work with service users, including complex clients. In addiction service users, psychiatric comorbidity is highly prevalent [
25‐
28] and medications used in their management have often been implicated in overdose and fatalities [
11‐
13]. Pharmacists’ support could be enlisted to guide prescribing decisions for service users with complex comorbidity. This approach may assist in improving medicines management among service users.
There is the need to equip nurse prescribers to work with service users, especially complex cases. Given that assessment, diagnosis and history-taking skills are pre-requisites for undertaking the nurse prescribing qualification, these skills may well be further developed through training to enable nurse prescribers manage complex service users, especially those with comorbid mental disorders. Practice should include regular supervision of nurse prescribers by an experienced doctor or nurse prescriber to ensure that they are making optimal clinical decisions.
The relationship between healthcare professionals and service users have changed over the years from a predominantly paternalistic model to one in which service users have increasingly become active partners whose views are important [
30,
31]. Involving service users assists the prescriber in eliciting their views and is useful in decision-making concerning treatment [
32]. There is evidence that building a positive relationship can lead to positive client and treatment outcomes [
33]. Despite these potential benefits, prescribers identified problems that may occur when trying to involve service users in decision-making. The quality of information provided by service users may be poor as a result of cognitive impairment or even deliberate withholding of information. When service users are actively misusing substances, prescribers lose access to the most fundamental tool in medicine, the patient’s self-report [
34]. While some prescribers described contacting service users’ GPs for further information concerning medications, this was not done by all prescribers.
Depending on information obtained from only service users in assessing appropriateness implies that medications which are potentially inappropriate may not be identified if service users fail to mention them. There is the possibility that different prescribers may go ahead to prescribe undisclosed medications such as multiple central nervous system depressants. In addiction medicine, there should be careful consideration of self-report and collateral information should be sought where possible [
34]. Shared medical records [
35] and good communication among different service providers are essential in obtaining accurate medical/medication histories and reducing the potential for multiple prescribing, drug interactions, overdose incidents and conflicting treatment plans [
34].
The limited applicability of guidelines to service users was also recognised by prescribers. Guidelines often have a disease-specific focus and limited applicability to the varying needs of individual patients [
36]. Although prescribing outside guideline recommendations carries its own risks including the potential for greater severity of unwanted side effects [
37], there needs to be a weighing of such risks against more pragmatic outcomes that may be of great importance to service users.
Strengths and limitations
To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first study to explore the views and experiences of specialist addiction service prescribers when assessing the appropriateness of prescribed medications among service users coming to this setting. Owing to the fact that the interviews were conducted with prescribers after they had taken part in an earlier study in which the appropriateness of opioids and psychiatric medications were assessed using a modified form of the Medication Appropriateness Index [
38], it is possible that participation in this initial study may have influenced some of their responses to the different areas explored in the interviews. Consequently, prescribers’ responses might be different if they were interviewed before taking part in this initial study.
The findings may lack generalisability to prescribers in other addiction services, especially given the changes that have occurred in drug and alcohol treatment services in the UK. There has been an increase in the number of third sector organisations (non-statutory service providers and the private sector) providing drug and alcohol services. Availability of medical expertise has also diminished in these services. Further research should involve multiple sites (including services run by the NHS and third sector organisations), to establish if the findings of this study are applicable. Given the reducing levels of medical expertise among staff in specialist addiction services, an important area to explore will be the role and scope of nurse prescribers: including their views on the changing drug treatment landscape, management of service users (especially those with complex needs), the support available to nurse prescribers and their training needs. Similarly, there may well be need to interview GPs on these areas since it was evident that specialist addiction service prescribers provided some level of support to them.
Furthermore, data collection was by a single researcher. There is the possibility that the researcher’s own perspectives may have affected interpretations that were made. However, the conduct, analysis and interpretation of data were overseen by two of the authors in addition to A.O.