Background
Methodology
Study design and population
Outcomes
Socio-demographic variables
Statistical analyses
Ethical approval
Results
Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Factors | Smoking | Smokeless | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total N (%)b | n (%)b | p value % (95% CI) | n (%)b | p value % (95% CI) | |
Overall | 112,122 (100) | 27,563 (100) | 24.6 (24.1–25.1) | 32,621 (100) | 29.1 (28.6–29.6) |
Demographic factors | |||||
Age of the respondents | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
15–24 | 35,364 (31.5) | 4570 (16.6) | 12.9 (12.3–13.6) | 6773 (20.8) | 19.2 (18.5–19.8) |
25–34 | 30,775 (27.5) | 7742 (28.1) | 25.2 (24.2–26.1) | 10,373 (31.8) | 33.7 (32.8–34.6) |
35–44 | 25,821 (23.0) | 7989 (29.0) | 30.9 (30.0–31.9) | 9075 (27.8) | 35.1 (34.2–36.1) |
45–54 | 20,162 (18.0) | 7261 (26.3) | 36.0 (35.0–37.1) | 6401 (19.6) | 31.7 (30.8–32.7) |
Marital status | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Single | 39,763 (35.5) | 5761 (20.9) | 14.5 (13.8–15.2) | 7272 (22.3) | 18.3 (17.6–19.0) |
Married | 70,781 (63.1) | 21,111 (76.6) | 29.8 (29.2–30.5) | 24,669 (75.6) | 34.9 (34.2–35.5) |
Separated/divorced/widow | 1578 (1.4) | 690 (2.5) | 43.7 (39.7–47.8) | 681 (2.1) | 43.1 (39.2–47.2) |
Sociocultural factors | |||||
Education | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
No education | 14,590 (13.0) | 5922 (21.5) | 40.6 (39.3–41.8) | 6305 (19.3) | 43.2 (41.9–44.6) |
Primary | 14,091 (12.6) | 5068 (18.4) | 36.0 (34.8–37.2) | 5879 (18.0) | 41.7 (40.4–43.0) |
Secondary | 64,010 (57.1) | 13,646 (49.5) | 21.3 (20.7–21.9) | 17,798 (54.6) | 27.8 (27.2–28.4) |
Higher | 19,431 (17.3) | 2928 (10.6) | 15.1 (14.0–16.1) | 2639 (8.1) | 13.6 (12.8–14.3) |
Occupation | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Not working | 24,623 (22.0) | 2941 (10.7) | 11.9 (11.3–12.7) | 3346 (10.3) | 13.6 (13.0–14.2) |
Professional/technical/managerial/services | 28,191 (25.2) | 6675 (24.3) | 23.7 (22.7–24.7) | 6655 (20.4) | 23.6 (22.7–24.6) |
Agriculture | 30,202 (27.0) | 8981 (32.6) | 29.7 (28.9–30.6) | 11,278 (34.6) | 37.3 (36.5–38.2) |
Skilled/unskilled manual | 28 911 (25.8) | 8907 (32.4) | 30.8 (29.8–31.8) | 11,290 (34.7) | 39.0 (37.9–40.2) |
Ethnicity | p < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Caste | 99,554 (89.6) | 23,909 (87.7) | 24.0 (23.5–24.6) | 28,489 (88.3) | 28.6 (28.1–29.2) |
Tribe | 7003 (6.3) | 1860 (6.8) | 26.6 (25.1–28.0) | 2,884 (8.9) | 41.2 (39.2–43.1) |
No caste/tribe | 4595 (4.1) | 1490 (5.5) | 32.4 (29.6–35.3) | 905 (2.8) | 19.7 (17.4–22.1) |
Consuming alcohol | p < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
No | 79036(70.5) | 12281 (44.6) | 15.5 (15.1–16.0) | 18,597 (57.0) | 23.5 (23.0–24.1) |
Yes | 33086(29.5) | 15282 (55.4) | 46.2 (45.1–47.2) | 14,023 (43.0) | 42.4 (41.4–43.4) |
Religion | p < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Hindu | 91,390 (81.5) | 22,278 (80.8) | 24.4 (23.8–24.9) | 27,428 (84.1) | 30.0 (29.4–30.6) |
Muslim | 14,790 (13.2) | 4083 (14.8) | 27.6 (26.1–29.2) | 4018(12.3) | 27.2 (25.6–28.8) |
Others | 5942(5.3) | 1202 (4.4) | 20.2 (18.6–21.9) | 1175(3.6) | 19.8 (18.2–21.4) |
Household’s wealth index | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Poorest | 16,441 (14.7) | 5104 (18.5) | 31.0 (30.0–32.1) | 8045 (24.7) | 48.9 (47.7–50.1) |
Poorer | 20,904 (18.6) | 5992 (21.7) | 28.7 (27.6–29.7) | 7986 (24.5) | 38.2 (37.2–39.2) |
Middle | 23,687 (21.1) | 6011 (21.8) | 25.4 (24.5–26.2) | 6857 (21.0) | 29.0 (28.0–29.9) |
Richer | 24,976 (22.3) | 5669 (20.6) | 22.7 (21.7–23.7) | 5692 (17.4) | 22.8 (21.9–23.7) |
Richest | 26,114 (23.3) | 4787 (17.4) | 18.3 (17.1–19.6) | 4039 (12.4) | 15.5 (14.5–16.5) |
Spatial factors | |||||
Place of residence | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Rural | 69,170 (61.7) | 17,688 (64.1) | 25.6 (25.0–26.1) | 22,674 (69.5) | 32.8 (32.2–33.3) |
Urban | 42,952 (38.3) | 9875 (35.9) | 23.0 (22.0–24.0) | 9947(30.5) | 23.2 (22.1–24.2) |
Region | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
South | 26,759 (23.9) | 6708 (24.3) | 25.1 (23.9–26.3) | 2444 (7.5) | 9.1 (8.5–9.8) |
West | 20,590 (18.3) | 2709 (9.8) | 13.2 (12.0–14.4) | 7340 (22.5) | 35.6 (33.9–37.4) |
North-east | 3693 (3.3) | 1444 (5.2) | 39.1 (37.3–40.9) | 1729 (5.3) | 46.8 (44.9–48.7) |
East | 21,051 (18.8) | 5943 (21.6) | 28.2 (26.9–29.6) | 8166 (25.0) | 8.8 (37.3–40.3) |
Central | 24,117 (21.5) | 6434 (23.4) | 26.7 (26.0–27.4) | 10,341 (31.7) | 42.9 (42.0–43.8) |
North | 15,912 (14.2) | 4324 (15.7) | 27.2 (26.3–28.1) | 2600 (8.0) | 16.3 (15.5–17.2) |
Access to information | |||||
Reading newspaper or magazine | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Not at all | 35,378 (31.6) | 11,591 (42.1) | 32.8 (31.9–33.6) | 14085 (43.2) | 39.8 (38.9–40.7) |
Less than once a week | 16,370 (14.6) | 3852 (14.0) | 23.5 (22.5–24.6) | 5424 (16.6) | 33.1 (31.9–34.3) |
At least once a week | 22,906 (20.4) | 5026 (18.2) | 21.9 (21.1–22.8) | 6132 (18.8) | 26.8 (25.9–27.7) |
Almost every day | 37,468 (33.4) | 7093 (25.7) | 18.9 (18.0–19.9) | 6980 (21.4) | 18.6 (17.9–19.4) |
Frequency of watching television | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Not at all | 15,112 (13.5) | 4289 (15.6) | 28.4 (27.4–29.4) | 6519 (20.0) | 43.1 (41.9–44.3) |
Less than once a week | 10,419 (9.3) | 2922 (10.6) | 28.0 (26.9–29.2) | 4400 (13.5) | 42.2 (40.8–43.7) |
At least once a week | 16,911 (15.1) | 4543 (16.5) | 26.9 (25.8–27.9) | 5836 (17.9) | 34.5 (33.3–35.7) |
Almost every day | 69,680 (62.1) | 15,808 (57.3) | 22.7 (22.0–23.3) | 15,866 (48.6) | 22.8 (22.2–23.4) |
Frequency of listening radio | P = 0.006 | P < 0.001 | |||
Not at all | 78,919 (70.4) | 19,143 (69.5) | 24.3 (23.7–24.8) | 24,048 (73.7) | 30.5 (29.8–31.1) |
Less than once a week | 9947 (8.9) | 2668 (9.7) | 26.8 (25.4–28.3) | 3197 (9.8) | 32.1 (30.6–33.7) |
At least once a week | 14,922 (13.3) | 3782 (13.7) | 25.3(23.9–26.8) | 3696 (11.3) | 24.8 (23.4–26.1) |
Almost every day | 8334 (7.4) | 1969 (7.1) | 23.6(22.1–25.2) | 1679 (5.1) | 20.1 (18.7–21.6) |
Prevalence of different forms of tobacco use
Factors | Any tobacco | Both smoked and smokeless | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total N (%)b | n (%)b | p value % (95% CI) | n (%)b | p value % (95% CI) | |
Overall | 112,122 (100) | 51,039 (100) | 45.5 (44.9–46.1) | 9398 (100) | 8.4 (8.1–8.7) |
Demographic factors | |||||
Age of the respondents | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
15–24 | 35,364 (31.5) | 9656 (18.9) | 27.3 (26.5–28.1) | 1731 (18.4) | 4.9 (4.6–5.2) |
25–34 | 30,775 (27.5) | 15,269 (29.9) | 49.6 (48.6–50.7) | 2922 (31.1) | 9.5 (9.0–10.0) |
35–44 | 25,821 (23.0) | 14,486 (28.4) | 56.1 (55.1–57.1) | 2653 (28.2) | 10.3 (9.8–10.8) |
45–54 | 20,162 (18.0) | 11,628 (22.8) | 57.7 (56.6–58.8) | 2092 (22.3) | 10.4 (9.8–11.0) |
Marital status | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Single | 39,763 (35.5) | 11,092 (21.7) | 27.9 (27.1–28.7) | 1993 (21.2) | 5.0 (4.7–5.4) |
Married | 70781 (63.1) | 38,843 (76.1) | 54.9 (54.2–55.6) | 7134 (75.9) | 10.1 (9.7–10.4) |
Separated/divorced/widowed | 1578 (1.4) | 1104 (2.2) | 70.0 (66.2–73.5) | 272 (2.9) | 17.2 (14.5–20.1) |
Sociocultural factors | |||||
Education | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
No education | 14,590 (13.0) | 9985 (19.6) | 68.4 (67.2–69.7) | 2275 (24.2) | 15.6 (14.7–16.5) |
Primary | 14,091 (12.6) | 9145 (17.9) | 64.9 (63.7–66.1) | 1861 (19.8) | 13.2 (12.5–14.0) |
Secondary | 64,010 (57.1) | 26,934 (52.8) | 42.1 (41.4–42.7) | 4651 (49.5) | 7.3 (7.0–7.6) |
Higher | 19,431 (17.3) | 4975 (9.7) | 25.6 (24.4–26.8) | 611 (6.5) | 3.1 (2.8–3.5) |
Occupation | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Not working | 24,623 (22.0) | 5449 (10.7) | 22.1 (21.3–23.0) | 881 (9.4) | 3.6 (3.3–3.9) |
Professional/technical/managerial/services | 28,191 (25.2) | 11,454 (22.5) | 40.6 (39.5–41.8) | 1910 (20.4) | 6.8 (6.3–7.3) |
Agriculture | 30,202 (27.0) | 17,144 (33.6) | 56.8 (55.9–57.6) | 3208 (34.1) | 10.6 (10.1–11.1) |
Skilled/unskilled manual | 28,911 (25.8) | 16,895 (33.2) | 58.4 (57.4–59.5) | 3384 (36.1) | 11.7 (11.1–12.3) |
Ethnicity | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Caste | 99,554 (89.6) | 44,383 (87.9) | 44.6 (44.0–45.2) | 8198 (88.3) | 8.2 (8.0–8.5) |
Tribe | 7003 (6.3) | 4010 (7.9) | 57.3 (55.4–59.1) | 795 (8.6) | 11.4 (10.4–12.3) |
No caste/tribe | 4595 (4.1) | 2116 (4.2) | 46.0 (43.2–48.9) | 287 (3.1) | 6.2 (5.1–7.5) |
Consuming alcohol | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
No | 79,036 (70.5) | 27,582 (54.0) | 34.9 (34.3–35.5) | 3433 (36.5) | 4.3 (4.1–4.6) |
Yes | 33,086 (29.5) | 23,457 (46.0) | 70.9 (69.9–71.9) | 5965 (63.5) | 18.0 (17.4–18.7) |
Religion | P < 0.001 | P = 0.075 | |||
Hindu | 91,390 (81.5) | 42,115 (82.5) | 46.1 (45.4–46.7) | 7831 (83.3) | 8.6 (8.3–8.9) |
Muslim | 14,790 (13.2) | 6903 (13.5) | 46.7 (44.8–48.6) | 1207 (12.9) | 8.2 (7.5–8.9) |
Others | 5942 (5.3) | 2021 (4.0) | 34.0 (32.2–35.9) | 359 (3.8) | 6.0 (5.3–6.9) |
Household’s wealth index | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Poorest | 16,441 (14.7) | 10,552 (20.7) | 64.2 (63.1–65.3) | 2671 (28.4) | 16.2 (15.5–17.0) |
Poorer | 20,904 (18.6) | 11,693 (22.9) | 55.9 (54.8–57.0) | 2369 (25.2) | 11.3 (10.7–11.9) |
Middle | 23,687 (21.1) | 11,038 (21.6) | 46.6 (45.6–47.6) | 1883 (20.0) | 8.0 (7.5–8.4) |
Richer | 24,976 (22.3) | 9923 (19.4) | 39.7 (38.6–40.8) | 1467 (15.6) | 5.9 (5.4–6.3) |
Spatial factors | |||||
Place of residence | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Rural | 69,170 (61.7) | 34,004 (66.6) | 49.2 (48.6–49.8) | 6579 (70.0) | 9.5 (9.2–9.8) |
Urban | 42,952 (38.3) | 17,035 (33.4) | 39.7 (38.5–40.8) | 2820 (30.0) | 6.6 (6.1–7.1) |
Region | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
South | 26,759 (23.9) | 8332 (16.3) | 31.1 (29.9–32.4) | 830 (8.8) | 3.1 (2.7–3.5) |
West | 20,590 (18.3) | 8997 (17.6) | 43.7 (42.0–45.4) | 1070 (11.4) | 5.2 (4.5–6.0) |
North-east | 3693 (3.3) | 2431 (4.8) | 65.8 (63.9–67.7) | 755 (8.0) | 20.4 (19.1–21.9) |
East | 21,051 (18.8) | 11,675 (22.9) | 55.5 (54.0–56.9) | 2462 (26.2) | 11.7 (10.9–12.5) |
Central | 24,117 (21.5) | 13,546 (26.5) | 56.2 (55.3–57.0) | 3413 (36.3) | 14.2 (13.6–14.7) |
North | 15,912 (14.2) | 6057 (11.9) | 38.1 (37.1–39.1) | 869 (9.3) | 5.5 (5.0–6.0) |
Access to information | |||||
Reading newspaper or magazine | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Not at all | 35,378 (31.6) | 21,339 (41.8) | 60.3 (59.4–61.2) | 4441 (47.3) | 12.6 (12.0–13.1) |
Less than once a week | 16,370 (14.6) | 7835 (15.4) | 47.9 (46.5–49.2) | 1497 (15.9) | 9.1 (8.4–9.9) |
At least once a week | 22,906 (20.4) | 9519 (18.6) | 41.6 (40.5–42.6) | 1687 (17.9) | 7.4 (6.9–7.8) |
Almost every day | 37,468 (33.4) | 12,346 (24.2) | 33.0 (31.9–34.0) | 1772 (18.9) | 4.7 (4.4–5.1) |
Frequency of watching television | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Not at all | 15,112 (13.5) | 8909 (17.4) | 59.0 (57.8–60.1) | 1934 (20.6) | 12.8 (12.1–13.5) |
Less than once a week | 10,419 (9.3) | 5954 (11.7) | 57.1 (55.7–58.6) | 1396 (14.9) | 13.4 (12.5–14.3) |
At least once a week | 16,911 (15.1) | 8659 (17.0) | 51.2 (50.0–52.4) | 1781 (18.9) | 10.5 (9.9–11.2) |
Almost every day | 69,680 (62.1) | 27,518 (53.9) | 39.5 (38.7–40.2) | 4288 (45.6) | 6.2 (5.8–6.5) |
Frequency of listening radio | P < 0.001 | P < 0.001 | |||
Not at all | 78,919 (70.4) | 36,832 (72.2) | 46.7 (46.0–47.3) | 6556 (69.8) | 8.3 (8.0–8.6) |
Less than once a week | 9947 (8.9) | 4816 (9.4) | 48.4 (46.7–50.1) | 1068 (11.4) | 10.7 (9.9–11.7) |
At least once a week | 14,922 (13.3) | 6287 (12.3) | 42.1 (40.6–43.7) | 1217 (12.9) | 8.2 (7.4–8.9) |
Almost every day | 8334 (7.4) | 3104 (6.1) | 37.2 (35.4–39.1) | 557 (5.9) | 6.7 (5.9–7.6) |
Factors associated with smoking and smokeless tobacco use
Factors | Smoking | Smokeless | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | Adjusted | Unadjusted | Adjusted | |||||
OR (95% CI) | P value | OR (95% CI) | P value | OR (95% CI) | P value | OR (95% CI) | P value | |
Demographic factors | ||||||||
Age of the respondents | ||||||||
15–24 | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
25–34 | 2.27 (2.11–2.43) | < 0.001 | 1.50 (1.36–1.65) | < 0.001 | 2.15 (2.04–2.26) | < 0.001 | 1.43 (1.33–1.55) | < 0.001 |
35–44 | 3.02 (2.82–3.23) | < 0.001 | 1.87 (1.69–2.06) | < 0.001 | 2.29 (2.16–2.43) | < 0.001 | 1.34 (1.23–1.47) | < 0.001 |
45–54 | 3.79 (3.55–4.05) | < 0.001 | 2.46 (2.21–2.74) | < 0.001 | 1.96 (1.85–2.08) | < 0.001 | 1.19 (1.08–1.30) | < 0.001 |
Marital status | ||||||||
Single | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Married | 2.51 (2.37–2.66) | < 0.001 | 1.03 (0.939–1.14) | 0.496 | 2.39 (2.28–2.50) | < 0.001 | 1.44 (1.33–1.56) | < 0.001 |
Separated/divorced/widowed | 4.59 (3.87–5.43) | < 0.001 | 1.70 (1.38–2.10) | < 0.001 | 3.39 (2.86–4.01) | < 0.001 | 1.60 (1.25–2.05) | < 0.001 |
Sociocultural factors | ||||||||
Education | ||||||||
No education | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Primary | 0.822 (0.766–0.882) | < 0.001 | 0.929 (0.856–1.01) | 0.078 | 0.941 (0.877-1.01) | 0.09 | 1.03 (0.945–1.12) | 0.527 |
Secondary | 0.397 (0.374–0.421) | < 0.001 | 0.650 (0.597–0.708) | < 0.001 | 0.506 (0.476-0.538) | < 0.001 | 0.880 (0.806–0.960) | 0.004 |
Higher | 0.260 (0.235–0.287) | < 0.001 | 0.512 (0.453–0.579) | < 0.001 | 0.207 (0.190-0.225) | < 0.001 | 0.530 (0.470–0.599) | < 0.001 |
Occupation | ||||||||
Not working | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Professional/technical/managerial/services | 2.29 (2.10–2.49) | < 0.001 | 1.38 (1.25-1.52) | < 0.001 | 1.96 (1.83–2.11) | <0.001 | 1.62 (1.49-1.76) | < 0.001 |
Agriculture | 3.12 (2.89–3.37) | < 0.001 | 1.52 (1.39-1.68) | < 0.001 | 3.79 (3.55–4.04) | < 0.001 | 1.77 (1.63–1.91) | < 0.001 |
Skilled/unskilled manual | 3.28 (3.02–3.57) | < 0.001 | 1.55 (1.40–1.72) | < 0.001 | 4.07 (3.80–4.37) | < 0.001 | 2.25 (2.07–2.45) | < 0.001 |
Ethnicity | ||||||||
Caste | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Tribe | 1.14 (1.06–1.24) | < 0.001 | 0.830 (0.758–0.910) | < 0.001 | 1.75 (1.60–1.90) | < 0.001 | 0.977 (0.893–1.07) | 0.605 |
No caste/tribe | 1.52 (1.33–1.73) | < 0.001 | 1.42 (1.23–1.64) | < 0.001 | 0.611 (0.526–0.711) | < 0.001 | 0.682 (0.561–0.829) | < 0.001 |
Alcohol consuming | ||||||||
No | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Yes | 4.67 (4.42–4.93) | < 0.001 | 4.33 (4.08–4.60) | < 0.001 | 2.39 (2.28–2.51) | < 0.001 | 2.71 (2.56–2.86) | < 0.001 |
Religion | ||||||||
Hindu | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Muslim | 1.18 (1.09–1.29) | < 0.001 | 1.51 (1.38–1.66) | < 0.001 | 0.870 (0.799–0.947) | 0.001 | 1.02 (0.930–1.12) | 0.649 |
Others | 0.786 (0.707–0.874) | 0.342 | 0.666 (0.589–0.754) | < 0.001 | 0.575 (0.519–0.637) | < 0.001 | 0.635 (0.569–0.709) | < 0.001 |
Household’s wealth index | ||||||||
Poorest | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Poorer | 0.892 (0.837–0.952) | < 0.001 | 1.09 (1.01–1.18) | 0.021 | 0.645 (0.608–0.684) | < 0.001 | 0.885 (0.826–0.948) | < 0.001 |
Middle | 0.755 (0.709–0.805) | < 0.001 | 0.999 (0.913–1.09) | 0.973 | 0.425 (0.399–0.453) | < 0.001 | 0.764 (0.708–0.825) | < 0.001 |
Richer | 0.652 (0.605–0.703) | < 0.001 | 0.921 (0.832–1.02) | 0.111 | 0.308 (0.287–0.330) | < 0.001 | 0.631 (0.576–0.692) | < 0.001 |
Richest | 0.499 (0.452–0.550) | < 0.001 | 0.786 (0.690–0.896) | < 0.001 | 0.191 (0.175–0.209) | < 0.001 | 0.437 (0.386–0.495) | < 0.001 |
Spatial factors | ||||||||
Place of residence | ||||||||
Rural | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Urban | 0.869 (0.82–0.93) | < 0.001 | 1.13 (1.05–1.22) | < 0.001 | 0.62 (0.578–0.668) | < 0.001 | 1.04 (0.970–1.18) | 0.273 |
Region | ||||||||
South | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
West | 0.453 (0.400–0.513) | < 0.001 | 0.673 (0.591–0.766) | < 0.001 | 5.51 (4.94–6.15) | < 0.001 | 8.40 (7.51–9.40) | < 0.001 |
North-east | 1.92 (1.74–2.12) | < 0.001 | 1.98 (1.76–2.23) | < 0.001 | 8.76 (7.84–9.79) | < 0.001 | 9.38 (8.19–10.7) | < 0.001 |
East | 1.18 (1.07–1.29) | < 0.001 | 1.26 (1.13–1.41) | < 0.001 | 6.31 (5.69–6.98) | < 0.001 | 6.18 (5.50–6.94) | < 0.001 |
Central | 1.09 (1.01–1.17) | 0.028 | 1.38 (1.27–1.50) | < 0.001 | 7.47 (6.84–8.15) | < 0.001 | 8.52 (7.74–9.39) | < 0.001 |
North | 1.12 (1.03–1.21) | 0.007 | 1.73 (1.58–1.90) | < 0.001 | 1.94 (1.76–2.15)) | < 0.001 | 2.62 (2.35–2.92) | < 0.001 |
Access to information | ||||||||
Reading newspaper or magazine | ||||||||
Not at all | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Less than once a week | 0.632 (0.589–0.677) | < 0.001 | 0.950 (0.872–1.04) | 0.249 | 0.749 (0.702–0.799) | < 0.001 | 0.945 (0.874–1.02) | 0.155 |
At least once a week | 0.577 (0.543–0.613) | < 0.001 | 0.946 (0.877–1.02) | 0.150 | 0.553 (0.522–0.585) | < 0.001 | 0.924 (0.857–0.997) | 0.042 |
Almost every day | 0.479 (0.447–0.513) | < 0.001 | 0.865 (0.794–0.942) | < 0.001 | 0.346 (0.326–0.368) | < 0.001 | 0.875 (0.804–0.953) | 0.002 |
Frequency of watching television | ||||||||
Not at all | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Less than once a week | 0.984 (0.912–1.06) | 0.666 | 1.10 (1.01–1.20) | 0.032 | 0.964 (0.895–1.04) | 0.33 | 1.05 (0.962–1.15) | 0.272 |
At least once a week | 0.927 (0.863–0.996) | 0.039 | 1.13 (1.03–1.23) | 0.007 | 0.695 (0.649–0.744) | < 0.001 | 0.982 (0.906–1.06) | 0.660 |
Almost every day | 0.740 (0.695–0.788) | < 0.001 | 1.14 (1.04–1.25) | 0.005 | 0.389 (0.366–0.412) | < 0.001 | 0.924 (0.854–1.00) | 0.052 |
Frequency of listening radio | ||||||||
Not at all | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Less than once a week | 1.14 (1.06–1.24) | < 0.001 | 1.16 (1.06–1.26) | 0.001 | 1.08 (1.00–1.17) | 0.047 | 1.06 (0.970–1.16) | 0.194 |
At least once a week | 1.06 (0.979–1.15) | 0.15 | 1.13 (1.03–1.23) | 0.009 | 0.751 (0.695–0.812) | < 0.001 | 0.892 (0.821–0.969) | 0.006 |
Almost every day | 0.966 (0.880–1.06) | 0.47 | 1.12 (1.02–1.24) | 0.021 | 0.576 (0.523–0.633) | < 0.001 | 0.886 (0.796–0.986) | 0.026 |
Factors associated with any tobacco and both smoked and smokeless tobacco use
Factors | Any tobacco | Both smoke and smokeless tobacco | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | Adjusted | Unadjusted | Adjusted | |||||
OR (95% CI) | P value | OR (95% CI) | P value | OR (95% CI) | P value | OR (95% CI) | P value | |
Demographic factors | ||||||||
Age of the respondents | ||||||||
15–24 | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
25–34 | 2.62 (2.48–2.77) | < 0.001 | 1.65 (1.53–1.78) | < 0.001 | 2.04 (1.88–2.21) | < 0.001 | 1.35 (1.21–1.50) | < 0.001 |
35–44 | 3.40 (3.22–3.59) | < 0.001 | 1.90 (1.74–2.08) | < 0.001 | 2.22 (2.04–2.43) | < 0.001 | 1.34 (1.18–1.52) | < 0.001 |
45–54 | 3.63 (3.43–3.83) | < 0.001 | 2.14 (1.96–2.35) | < 0.001 | 2.25 (2.05–2.47) | < 0.001 | 1.44 (1.26–1.64) | < 0.001 |
Marital status | ||||||||
Single | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Married | 3.14 (3.01–3.28) | < 0.001 | 1.36 (1.26–1.46) | < 0.001 | 2.12 (1.96–2.30) | < 0.001 | 1.06 (0.945–1.20) | 0.3118 |
Separated/divorced/widowed | 6.02 (5.04–7.19) | < 0.001 | 2.13 (1.68–2.70) | < 0.001 | 3.94 (3.20–4.84) | < 0.001 | 1.56 (1.22–1.98) | < 0.001 |
Sociocultural factors | ||||||||
Education | ||||||||
No education | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Primary | 0.853 (0.792–0.918) | < 0.001 | 0.991 (0.915–1.07) | 0.830 | 0.824 (0.754–0.899) | < 0.001 | 0.919 (0.830–1.02) | 0.104 |
Secondary | 0.335 (0.315–0.356) | < 0.001 | 0.673 (0.620–0.731) | < 0.001 | 0.424 (0.391–0.460) | < 0.001 | 0.737 (0.659–0.824) | < 0.001 |
Higher | 0.159 (0.146–0.173) | < 0.001 | 0.444 (0.398–0.496) | < 0.001 | 0.176 (0.153–0.202) | < 0.001 | 0.450 (0.375–0.540) | < 0.001 |
Occupation | ||||||||
Not working | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Professional/technical/managerial/services | 2.41 (2.25–2.57) | <0.001 | 1.54 (1.42–1.67) | < 0.001 | 1.96 (1.75–2.19) | < 0.001 | 1.46 (1.28–1.66) | < 0.001 |
Agriculture | 4.62 (4.35–4.91) | < 0.001 | 1.81 (1.67–1.95) | < 0.001 | 3.20 (2.87–3.57) | < 0.001 | 1.47 (1.30–1.66) | < 0.001 |
Skilled/unskilled manual | 4.95 (4.63–5.29) | < 0.001 | 2.21 (2.04–2.40) | < 0.001 | 3.57 (3.20–3.98) | < 0.001 | 1.67 (1.47–1.90) | < 0.001 |
Ethnicity | ||||||||
Caste | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Tribe | 1.67 (1.54–1.80) | < 0.001 | 1.01 (0.930–1.11) | 0.741 | 1.43 (1.29–1.58) | < 0.001 | 0.726 (0.648–0.814) | < 0.001 |
No caste/tribe | 1.06 (0.946–1.19) | 0.313 | 1.15 (0.989–1.34) | 0.068 | 0.741 (0.606–0.906) | 0.003 | 0.781 (0.636–0.958) | 0.0180 |
Alcohol consuming | ||||||||
No | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Yes | 4.54 (4.30–4.80) | <0.001 | 5.22(4.88-5.59) | < 0.001 | 4.84 (4.53–5.18) | < 0.001 | 4.90 (4.55–5.28) | < 0.001 |
Religion | ||||||||
Hindu | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Muslim | 1.02 (0.944–1.11) | 0.57 | 1.28 (1.17–1.40) | 0.081 | 0.948 (0.859–1.05) | 0.296 | 1.37 (1.23–1.52) | < 0.001 |
Others | 0.603 (0.554–0.657) | < 0.001 | 0.529 (0.473–0.592) | 0.265 | 0.687 (0.594–0.794) | < 0.001 | 0.763 (0.651–0.895) | < 0.001 |
Household’s wealth index | ||||||||
Poorest | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Poorer | 0.709 (0.667–0.753) | < 0.001 | 0.963 (0.896–1.03) | 0.302 | 0.659 (0.609–0.713) | < 0.001 | 0.917 (0.839–1.00) | 0.053 |
Middle | 0.487 (0.459–0.517) | < 0.001 | 0.789 (0.733–0.849) | < 0.001 | 0.445 (0.409–0.485) | < 0.001 | 0.818 (0.735–0.909) | < 0.001 |
Richer | 0.368 (0.344–0.393) | < 0.001 | 0.664 (0.607–0.727) | < 0.001 | 0.322 (0.291–0.356) | < 0.001 | 0.681 (0.598–0.775) | < 0.001 |
Richest | 0.239 (0.221–0.259) | < 0.001 | 0.482 (0.435–0.534) | < 0.001 | 0.207 (0.180–0.239) | < 0.001 | 0.512 (0.428–0.613) | < 0.001 |
Spatial factors | ||||||||
Place of residence | ||||||||
Rural | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Urban | 0.680 (0.645–0.719) | < 0.001 | 1.10 (1.03–1.17) | 0.003 | 0.667 (0.613–0.730) | < 0.001 | 1.13 (1.02–1.23) | 0.016 |
Region | ||||||||
South | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
West | 1.72 (1.57–1.88) | < 0.001 | 3.23 (2.91–3.58) | < 0.001 | 1.71 (1.40–2.09) | < 0.001 | 2.82 (2.33–3.43) | < 0.001 |
North-East | 4.26 (3.84–4.72) | < 0.001 | 5.22 (4.57–5.98) | < 0.001 | 8.02 (6.90–9.34) | < 0.001 | 8.50 (7.17–10.1) | < 0.001 |
East | 2.75 (2.53–2.99) | < 0.001 | 3.26 (2.95–3.60) | < 0.001 | 4.14 (3.58–4.78) | < 0.001 | 4.11 (3.52–4.80) | < 0.001 |
Central | 2.83 (2.65–3.04) | < 0.001 | 4.23 (3.89–4.59) | < 0.001 | 5.15 (4.51–5.88) | < 0.001 | 6.11 (5.33–7.00) | < 0.001 |
North | 1.36 (1.26–1.46) | < 0.001 | 2.35 (2.15–2.57) | < 0.001 | 1.80 (1.55–2.11) | < 0.001 | 2.72 (2.32–3.19) | < 0.001 |
Access to information | ||||||||
Reading newspaper or magazine | ||||||||
Not at all | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Less than once a week | 0.604 (0.566–0.645) | < 0.001 | 0.913 (0.841–0.990) | 0.0274 | 0.701 (0.634–0.776) | < 0.001 | 0.978 (0.868–1.10) | 0.711 |
At least once a week | 0.468 (0.443–0.494) | < 0.001 | 0.884 (0.823–0.949) | < 0.001 | 0.554 (0.513–0.598) | < 0.001 | 0.975 (0.884–1.08) | 0.614 |
Almost every day | 0.323 (0.305–0.342) | < 0.001 | 0.811 (0.750–0.876) | < 0.001 | 0.346 (0.317–0.377) | < 0.001 | 0.903 (0.800–1.02) | 0.103 |
Frequency of watching television | ||||||||
Not at all | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Less than once a week | 0.929 (0.865–0.997) | 0.042 | 1.11 (1.02–1.20) | 0.014 | 1.05 (0.956–1.16) | 0.291 | 1.23 (1.10–1.37) | 0.132 |
At least once a week | 0.731 (0.684–0.781) | < 0.001 | 1.08 (0.995–1.17) | 0.065 | 0.802 (0.734–0.876) | < 0.001 | 1.15 (1.04–1.28) | 0.527 |
Almost every day | 0.454 (0.429–0.481) | < 0.001 | 1.06 (0.983–1.14) | 0.129 | 0.447 (0.410–0.487) | < 0.001 | 1.22 (1.05–1.42) | 0.325 |
Frequency of listening radio | ||||||||
Not at all | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||||
Less than once a week | 1.07 (0.999–1.15) | 0.054 | 1.09 (1.00–1.18) | 0.043 | 1.33 (1.20–1.47) | < 0.001 | 1.42 (1.22–1.64) | < 0.001 |
At least once a week | 0.832 (0.779–0.888) | < 0.001 | 0.955 (0.878–1.04) | 0.279 | 0.980 (0.884–1.09) | 0.699 | 1.28 (1.11–1.47) | 0.009 |
Almost every day | 0.678 (0.624–0.737) | < 0.001 | 0.946 (0.862–1.04) | 0.240 | 0.791 (0.687–0.910) | 0.001 | 1.30 (1.07–1.59) | 0.010 |