Background
Methods
MAISHA study design and procedures
Baseline survey
Questions | |
---|---|
Physical violence | Has your current partner or any other partner ever… |
1. Slapped you or thrown something at you that could hurt you? | |
2. Pushed you or shoved you or pulled your hair? | |
3. Hit you with his fist or with something else that could hurt you? | |
4. Kicked you, dragged you or beaten you up? | |
5. Choked or burnt you on purpose? | |
6. Threatened to use or actually used a gun, knife or other weapon against you? | |
Sexual violence | Have you ever had sexual intercourse with your current partner or other partner |
1. After he forced you by threatening you, holding you down or hurting you in some way? | |
2. When you did not want to because you were afraid that your partner would hurt you or someone you cared about if you refused? | |
3. When you did not want to because you were afraid that your partner would leave you or take another girlfriend if you refused? | |
Controlling behaviours | Thinking about your (current or most recent or past) partner, would you say it is generally true that he: |
1. Tries to keep you from seeing your friends | |
2. Tries to restrict contact with your family of birth | |
3. Insists on knowing where you are at all times | |
4. Is jealous and gets angry if you speak with another man | |
5. Is often suspicious that you are unfaithful | |
Economic abuse | Thinking about your (current or most recent/past) partner, would you say it is generally true that he: |
1. Refuses to give you enough money for household expenses, even when he has money for other things? | |
2. Takes money that you have earned away from you | |
3. Makes important financial decisions without consulting you | |
Emotional abuse | Has your current partner, or any other partner ever… |
1. Insulted you or made you feel bad about yourself? | |
2. Belittled or humiliated you in front of other people? | |
3. Done things to scare or intimidate you on purpose (e.g. by the way he looked at you, by yelling and smashing things)? | |
4. Verbally threatened to hurt you or someone you care about? |
Data analysis
Results
Prevalence of violence and different forms of abuses
Lifetime experience | Experienced during the 12 months before interview | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N
| Percent | 95% CI |
N
| Percent | 95% CI | |||
Physical and/or sexual violence | 621 | 60.8 | 57.8 | 63.8 | 271 | 26.5 | 23.9 | 29.4 |
Physical violence | ||||||||
Overallaa | 541 | 53.0 | 49.9 | 56.1 | 194 | 19.0 | 16.6 | 21.5 |
Less severec
| 175 | 17.1 | 14.9 | 19.6 | 63 | 6.2 | 4.8 | 7.8 |
Severeb
| 366 | 35.8 | 32.9 | 38.9 | 131 | 12.8 | 10.8 | 15.0 |
Sexual violence | ||||||||
Overalla
| 355 | 34.8 | 31.8 | 37.8 | 171 | 16.7 | 14.5 | 19.2 |
Controlling behaviour | ||||||||
Overalla
| 832 | 81.5 | 79.0 | 83.8 | 639 | 62.6 | 59.5 | 65.6 |
Yes to only 1 question | 256 | 25.1 | 22.4 | 27.9 | 250 | 24.5 | 21.9 | 27.2 |
Yes to ≥ 2 questions | 576 | 56.4 | 53.3 | 59.5 | 389 | 38.1 | 35.1 | 41.2 |
Emotional abuse | ||||||||
Overalla
| 694 | 68.0 | 65.0 | 70.8 | 401 | 39.3 | 36.3 | 42.3 |
Yes to only 1 question | 267 | 26.2 | 23.5 | 29.0 | 184 | 18.0 | 15.7 | 20.5 |
Yes to ≥ 2 questions | 427 | 41.8 | 38.8 | 44.9 | 217 | 21.3 | 18.8 | 23.9 |
Economic abuse | ||||||||
Overalla
| 479 | 46.9 | 43.8 | 50.0 | 343 | 33.6 | 30.7 | 36.6 |
Yes to only 1 question | 206 | 20.2 | 17.8 | 22.8 | 167 | 16.4 | 14.1 | 18.8 |
Yes to ≥ 2 questions | 273 | 26.7 | 24.0 | 29.6 | 176 | 17.2 | 15.0 | 19.7 |
Co-occurrence of past 12-month violence and abuse
Associations with socio-demographic characteristics
Physical and/or sexual violence | Physical violence | Sexual violence | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N
| Percent | Exact 95% CI | Percent | Exact 95% CI | Percent | Exact 95% CI | ||||
Age | ||||||||||
Less than 30 yrs | 143 | 42.0 | 33.8 | 50.5 | 31.5 | 24.0 | 39.8 | 25.2 | 18.3 | 33.1 |
30–34 yrs | 150 | 35.3 | 27.7 | 43.5 | 28.0 | 21.0 | 35.9 | 22.7 | 16.2 | 30.2 |
35–39 yrs | 234 | 28.2 | 22.5 | 34.4 | 20.9 | 15.9 | 26.7 | 17.9 | 13.3 | 23.5 |
40–49 yrs | 331 | 23.3 | 18.8 | 28.2 | 15.1 | 11.4 | 19.4 | 14.8 | 11.2 | 19.1 |
50+ yrs | 163 | 9.2 | 5.2 | 14.7 | 4.9 | 2.1 | 9.4 | 6.1 | 3.0 | 11.0 |
Level of education | ||||||||||
No formal education | 59 | 27.1 | 16.4 | 40.3 | 18.6 | 9.7 | 30.9 | 16.9 | 8.4 | 29.0 |
Primary | 738 | 27.9 | 24.7 | 31.3 | 20.5 | 17.6 | 23.6 | 17.5 | 14.8 | 20.4 |
Secondary | 200 | 23.0 | 17.4 | 29.5 | 15.5 | 10.8 | 21.3 | 14.5 | 9.9 | 20.2 |
Post-secondary education | 24 | 12.5 | 2.7 | 32.4 | 4.2 | 0.1 | 21.1 | 12.5 | 2.7 | 32.4 |
Marital status | ||||||||||
Married/living with man as if married | 743 | 30.6 | 27.3 | 34.0 | 22.6 | 19.6 | 25.8 | 19.2 | 16.5 | 22.3 |
Divorced/separated | 151 | 17.9 | 12.1 | 24.9 | 13.2 | 8.3 | 19.7 | 10.6 | 6.2 | 16.6 |
Widowed | 100 | 9.0 | 4.2 | 16.4 | 2.0 | 0.2 | 7.0 | 8.0 | 3.5 | 15.2 |
Never married | 27 | 29.6 | 13.8 | 50.2 | 14.8 | 4.2 | 33.7 | 14.8 | 4.2 | 33.7 |
Monthly earningsa
| ||||||||||
No personal earnings | 31 | 22.6 | 9.6 | 41.1 | 9.7 | 2.0 | 25.8 | 16.1 | 5.5 | 33.7 |
Less than USD 60 | 247 | 33.2 | 27.4 | 39.4 | 26.3 | 20.9 | 32.3 | 20.2 | 15.4 | 25.8 |
USD 60 to 179 | 303 | 26.1 | 21.2 | 31.4 | 18.8 | 14.6 | 23.7 | 16.5 | 12.5 | 21.2 |
USD 180 to 499 | 165 | 17.6 | 12.1 | 24.3 | 12.1 | 7.6 | 18.1 | 12.1 | 7.6 | 18.1 |
above USD 500 | 252 | 25.8 | 20.5 | 31.7 | 17.9 | 13.3 | 23.2 | 14.7 | 10.6 | 19.7 |
Don’t know earnings | 23 | 39.1 | 19.7 | 61.5 | 17.4 | 5.0 | 38.8 | 39.1 | 19.7 | 61.5 |
Partner’s age | ||||||||||
Less than 30 yrs | 36 | 33.3 | 18.6 | 51.0 | 25.0 | 12.1 | 42.2 | 19.4 | 8.2 | 36.0 |
30–34 yrs | 80 | 47.5 | 36.2 | 59.0 | 38.8 | 28.1 | 50.3 | 27.5 | 18.1 | 38.6 |
35–39 yrs | 148 | 35.8 | 28.1 | 44.1 | 25.7 | 18.9 | 33.5 | 25.0 | 18.3 | 32.8 |
40–49 yrs | 343 | 28.0 | 23.3 | 33.1 | 20.4 | 16.3 | 25.1 | 15.7 | 12.1 | 20.0 |
50+ yrs | 329 | 17.3 | 13.4 | 21.9 | 10.6 | 7.5 | 14.5 | 12.5 | 9.1 | 16.5 |
Don’t know | 85 | 17.6 | 10.2 | 27.4 | 12.9 | 6.6 | 22.0 | 11.8 | 5.8 | 20.6 |
Partner’s education | ||||||||||
No formal education | 16 | 43.8 | 19.8 | 70.1 | 31.3 | 11.0 | 58.7 | 25.0 | 7.3 | 52.4 |
Primary | 567 | 29.5 | 25.7 | 33.4 | 22.4 | 19.0 | 26.1 | 18.9 | 15.7 | 22.3 |
Secondary | 316 | 24.1 | 19.4 | 29.2 | 15.8 | 12.0 | 20.3 | 14.6 | 10.9 | 18.9 |
Post-secondary education | 85 | 20.0 | 12.1 | 30.1 | 11.8 | 5.8 | 20.6 | 12.9 | 6.6 | 22.0 |
Don’t know | 37 | 10.8 | 3.0 | 25.4 | 5.4 | 0.7 | 18.2 | 8.1 | 1.7 | 21.9 |
Respondent’s number of children under 18 years | ||||||||||
No children | 73 | 16.4 | 8.8 | 27.0 | 5.5 | 1.5 | 13.4 | 13.7 | 6.8 | 23.8 |
1 Child | 151 | 23.2 | 16.7 | 30.7 | 12.6 | 7.7 | 19.0 | 15.2 | 9.9 | 22.0 |
2 Children | 192 | 25.5 | 19.5 | 32.3 | 19.8 | 14.4 | 26.1 | 15.1 | 10.4 | 21.0 |
3 Children | 225 | 31.6 | 25.5 | 38.1 | 23.1 | 17.8 | 29.2 | 20.9 | 15.8 | 26.8 |
4 Children | 170 | 25.9 | 19.5 | 33.1 | 18.8 | 13.2 | 25.5 | 14.1 | 9.3 | 20.3 |
5 or more children | 210 | 28.6 | 22.6 | 35.2 | 23.3 | 17.8 | 29.6 | 18.1 | 13.1 | 24.0 |
Socio-economic status quintileb
| ||||||||||
1st
| 192 | 29.7 | 23.3 | 36.7 | 21.9 | 16.2 | 28.4 | 20.3 | 14.9 | 26.7 |
2nd
| 174 | 32.8 | 25.8 | 40.3 | 24.1 | 18.0 | 31.2 | 21.8 | 15.9 | 28.7 |
3rd
| 209 | 19.6 | 14.5 | 25.7 | 12.9 | 8.7 | 18.2 | 13.9 | 9.5 | 19.3 |
4th
| 198 | 26.8 | 20.7 | 33.5 | 20.7 | 15.3 | 27.0 | 13.1 | 8.8 | 18.6 |
5th
| 194 | 24.2 | 18.4 | 30.9 | 18.0 | 12.9 | 24.2 | 12.9 | 8.5 | 18.4 |
Unknown | 54 | 29.6 | 18.0 | 43.6 | 13.0 | 5.4 | 24.9 | 25.9 | 15.0 | 39.7 |
Controlling behaviour | Emotional abuse | Economic abuse | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N
| Percent | Exact 95% CI | Percent | Exact 95% CI | Percent | Exact 95% CI | ||||
Age | ||||||||||
Less than 30 yrs | 143 | 76.9 | 69.1 | 83.6 | 48.3 | 39.8 | 56.8 | 33.6 | 25.9 | 41.9 |
30–34 yrs | 150 | 74.7 | 66.9 | 81.4 | 55.3 | 47.0 | 63.4 | 40.0 | 32.1 | 48.3 |
35–39 yrs | 234 | 67.5 | 61.1 | 73.5 | 40.2 | 33.8 | 46.8 | 35.9 | 29.8 | 42.4 |
40–49 yrs | 331 | 58.9 | 53.4 | 64.3 | 38.4 | 33.1 | 43.8 | 36.6 | 31.4 | 42.0 |
50+ yrs | 163 | 39.3 | 31.7 | 47.2 | 17.2 | 11.7 | 23.9 | 18.4 | 12.8 | 25.2 |
Level of education | ||||||||||
No formal education | 59 | 61.0 | 47.4 | 73.5 | 39.0 | 26.5 | 52.6 | 37.3 | 25.0 | 50.9 |
Primary | 738 | 60.8 | 57.2 | 64.4 | 40.7 | 37.1 | 44.3 | 34.6 | 31.1 | 38.1 |
Secondary | 200 | 69.5 | 62.6 | 75.8 | 36.0 | 29.4 | 43.1 | 30.0 | 23.7 | 36.9 |
Post-secondary education | 24 | 62.5 | 40.6 | 81.2 | 25.0 | 9.8 | 46.7 | 25.0 | 9.8 | 46.7 |
Marital status | ||||||||||
Married/living with man as if married | 743 | 70.5 | 67.1 | 73.8 | 46.3 | 42.7 | 50.0 | 36.6 | 33.1 | 40.2 |
Divorced/separated | 151 | 47.7 | 39.5 | 56.0 | 24.5 | 17.9 | 32.2 | 28.5 | 21.4 | 36.4 |
Widowed | 100 | 26.0 | 17.7 | 35.7 | 11.0 | 5.6 | 18.8 | 19.0 | 11.8 | 28.1 |
Never married | 27 | 63.0 | 42.4 | 80.6 | 33.3 | 16.5 | 54.0 | 33.3 | 16.5 | 54.0 |
Monthly earningsa
| ||||||||||
No personal earnings | 31 | 77.4 | 58.9 | 90.4 | 48.4 | 30.2 | 66.9 | 35.5 | 19.2 | 54.6 |
Less than USD 60 | 247 | 59.1 | 52.7 | 65.3 | 44.1 | 37.8 | 50.6 | 35.6 | 29.7 | 41.9 |
USD 60 to 179 | 303 | 58.7 | 53.0 | 64.3 | 36.6 | 31.2 | 42.3 | 37.3 | 31.8 | 43.0 |
USD 180 to 499 | 165 | 63.6 | 55.8 | 71.0 | 37.6 | 30.2 | 45.4 | 26.1 | 19.5 | 33.5 |
above USD 500 | 252 | 66.3 | 60.1 | 72.1 | 36.9 | 30.9 | 43.2 | 30.2 | 24.6 | 36.2 |
Don’t know earnings | 23 | 82.6 | 61.2 | 95.0 | 47.8 | 26.8 | 69.4 | 52.2 | 30.6 | 73.2 |
Partner’s age | ||||||||||
Less than 30 yrs | 36 | 66.7 | 49.0 | 81.4 | 47.2 | 30.4 | 64.5 | 22.2 | 10.1 | 39.2 |
30–34 yrs | 80 | 80.0 | 69.6 | 88.1 | 51.2 | 39.8 | 62.6 | 26.3 | 17.0 | 37.3 |
35–39 yrs | 148 | 75.7 | 67.9 | 82.3 | 48.0 | 39.7 | 56.3 | 39.2 | 31.3 | 47.5 |
40–49 yrs | 343 | 65.3 | 60.0 | 70.3 | 42.3 | 37.0 | 47.7 | 38.2 | 33.0 | 43.6 |
50+ yrs | 329 | 55.0 | 49.5 | 60.5 | 31.6 | 26.6 | 36.9 | 30.1 | 25.2 | 35.4 |
Don’t know | 85 | 40.0 | 29.5 | 51.2 | 27.1 | 18.0 | 37.8 | 30.6 | 21.0 | 41.5 |
Partner’s education | ||||||||||
No formal education | 16 | 56.3 | 29.9 | 80.2 | 43.8 | 19.8 | 70.1 | 50.0 | 24.7 | 75.3 |
Primary | 567 | 60.7 | 56.5 | 64.7 | 41.6 | 37.5 | 45.8 | 33.3 | 29.5 | 37.4 |
Secondary | 316 | 65.5 | 60.0 | 70.7 | 39.6 | 34.1 | 45.2 | 34.8 | 29.6 | 40.3 |
Post-secondary education | 85 | 70.6 | 59.7 | 80.0 | 30.6 | 21.0 | 41.5 | 28.2 | 19.0 | 39.0 |
Don’t know | 37 | 51.4 | 34.4 | 68.1 | 18.9 | 8.0 | 35.2 | 32.4 | 18.0 | 49.8 |
Respondent's number of children under 18 years | ||||||||||
No children | 73 | 47.9 | 36.1 | 60.0 | 28.8 | 18.8 | 40.6 | 27.4 | 17.6 | 39.1 |
1 Child | 151 | 57.6 | 49.3 | 65.6 | 34.4 | 26.9 | 42.6 | 29.1 | 22.0 | 37.1 |
2 Children | 192 | 62.0 | 54.7 | 68.9 | 39.1 | 32.1 | 46.3 | 33.3 | 26.7 | 40.5 |
3 Children | 225 | 64.4 | 57.8 | 70.7 | 36.4 | 30.2 | 43.1 | 37.3 | 31.0 | 44.0 |
4 Children | 170 | 63.5 | 55.8 | 70.8 | 43.5 | 36.0 | 51.3 | 34.1 | 27.0 | 41.8 |
5 or more children | 210 | 69.0 | 62.3 | 75.2 | 46.2 | 39.3 | 53.2 | 34.8 | 28.3 | 41.6 |
Socio-economic status quintileb
| ||||||||||
1st
| 192 | 57.3 | 50.0 | 64.4 | 42.2 | 35.1 | 49.5 | 29.7 | 23.3 | 36.7 |
2nd
| 174 | 63.2 | 55.6 | 70.4 | 44.8 | 37.3 | 52.5 | 33.9 | 26.9 | 41.5 |
3rd
| 209 | 64.1 | 57.2 | 70.6 | 34.9 | 28.5 | 41.8 | 33.5 | 27.1 | 40.3 |
4th | 198 | 62.1 | 55.0 | 68.9 | 37.4 | 30.6 | 44.5 | 31.8 | 25.4 | 38.8 |
5th | 194 | 61.3 | 54.1 | 68.2 | 35.6 | 28.8 | 42.7 | 36.6 | 29.8 | 43.8 |
Unknown | 54 | 79.6 | 66.5 | 89.4 | 48.1 | 34.3 | 62.2 | 42.6 | 29.2 | 56.8 |
Associations with symptoms of poor mental health
N
| Poor mental health status
n (%) | Odds ratio | 95% CI |
P
| Adjusted odds ratio (AOR)a
| 95% CI |
P
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Physical violence | ||||||||||
Experienced in past 12 months | 194 | 113 (58.2) | 2.40 | 1.74 | 3.32 | <0.001 | 1.84 | 1.27 | 2.65 | 0.001 |
No Experience in past 12 months | 827 | 299 (36.2) | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Sexual violence | ||||||||||
Experienced in past 12 months | 171 | 110 (64.3) | 3.34 | 2.34 | 4.78 | <0.001 | 2.76 | 1.86 | 4.09 | <0.001 |
No Experience in past 12 months | 850 | 302 (35.5) | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Controlling behaviour | ||||||||||
Experienced in past 12 months | 639 | 277 (43.3) | 1.37 | 1.05 | 1.78 | 0.022 | 0.97 | 0.71 | 1.31 | 0.832 |
No Experience in past 12 months | 382 | 135 (35.3) | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Economic abuse | ||||||||||
Experienced in past 12 months | 343 | 194 (56.6) | 2.71 | 2.06 | 3.57 | <0.001 | 1.86 | 1.35 | 2.57 | <0.001 |
No Experience in past 12 months | 678 | 218 (32.2) | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Emotional abuse | ||||||||||
Experienced in past 12 months | 401 | 213 (53.1) | 2.40 | 1.84 | 3.13 | <0.001 | 1.53 | 1.09 | 2.15 | 0.015 |
No Experience in past 12 months | 620 | 199 (32.1) | 1 | 1 |