Background
Methods
Design and sample
Variables
Outcome variables
Exposure variables
Intimate partner violence | Exposure during past 12 months | |
---|---|---|
% |
n
| |
Controlling behavior | ||
Tried to restrict time spent with my family and friends | 4.9 | 28 |
Wanted to know where I went and who I spoke to when not together | 17.6 | 101 |
Tried to restrict my activities outside the relationship | 6.4 | 37 |
Felt suspicious and jealous of me | 12.6 | 72 |
Tried to control my activities | 6.6 | 38 |
Exposed to ≥ 1 item of controlling behavior
|
25.0
|
143
|
Physical violence | ||
Pushed or shoved me | 6.6 | 38 |
Thrown something that could have hurt me | 1.6 | 9 |
Hit me with the fist or with some other object | 1.2 | 7 |
Kicked and dragged me and beaten me up | 0.5 | 3 |
Choked or burnt me on purpose | 0.5 | 3 |
Hurt me with a knife, a gun or some other weapon | 0.2 | 1 |
Exposed to ≥ 1 item of physical violence scale
|
7.5
|
43
|
Sexual violence | ||
Demanded to have sex with me even though I did not want to | 2.4 | 14 |
Forced me to have sex against my will by using physical strength | 0.3 | 2 |
Forced me to perform sexual acts that I experienced as degrading and/ or humiliating | 0.3 | 2 |
Exposed to ≥ 1 item of sexual violence scale
|
2.8
|
16
|
Covariates
Statistical analyses
Internal reliability
Ethical considerations
Results
Descriptive statistics
Characteristics | Percent% | Number |
---|---|---|
Age groups | ||
18–25 | 10.5 | 60 |
26–35 | 23.6 | 135 |
36–45 | 22.5 | 129 |
46–55 | 20.9 | 120 |
56–65 | 22.5 | 129 |
Civil status | ||
Single/ widowed/ divorced | 14.8 | 85 |
Boyfriend/ girlfriend | 11.2 | 64 |
Married/ cohabitant/ registered partnership | 73.3 | 420 |
Duration of present relationship | ||
> 10 years | 50.3 | 288 |
4-10 years | 20.1 | 115 |
≤ 3 years | 14.3 | 82 |
Country of birth | ||
Sweden | 90.6 | 519 |
Other Nordic country | 2.6 | 15 |
Other European country | 3.1 | 18 |
Country outside of Europe | 3.7 | 21 |
Educational level | ||
University | 47.1 | 270 |
High school (10–12 years) | 36.8 | 211 |
Elementary school (≤ 9 years) | 15.9 | 91 |
Employment status | ||
Employed | 69.7 | 396 |
Student | 6.2 | 35 |
Early retirement pension/Retired | 8.2 | 47 |
Sick leave (more than 3 months) | 1.4 | 8 |
Parental leave or leave of absence | 6.2 | 35 |
Unemployed | 4.0 | 23 |
Home-worker, taking care of the household & other | 4.2 | 24 |
Grown up with- and witnessed IPV | ||
No/ Unsure | 91.3 | 523 |
Yes | 7.7 | 44 |
Access to social support | ||
Good | 62.8 | 360 |
Poor | 34.4 | 197 |
Prevalence, frequency and co-occurrence of controlling behavior, physical and sexual violence
Prevalence and frequency of self-reported symptoms of depression
Self-reported symptoms of depression past 12 months | Almost every day | Once a week | Once a month | Almost never/ Never | Exposed almost every day/once a week |
% (n) | % (n) | % (n) | % (n) | % (n) | |
Fatigue/ tiredness | 15.5 (89) | 30.2 (173) | 33.3 (190) | 17.1 (98) | 45.7 (262) |
Difficulty falling asleep | 8.7 (50) | 20.9 (120) | 26.7 (153) | 40.5 (232) | 29.7 (170) |
Trouble concentrating | 6.1 (35) | 12.2 (70) | 25.0 (143) | 50.1 (287) | 18.3 (105) |
Feeling down/ low | 6.3 (36) | 11.3 (65) | 31.2 (179) | 44.9 (257) | 17.6 (101) |
Suicidal thoughts | 0.5 (3) | 0.2 (1) | 3.5 (20) | 89.0 (510) | 0.7 (4) |
Exposed to number of depression related symptoms (almost every day/ once a week) past 12 months | |||||
Number of depression related symptoms | Exposed almost every day/once a week | ||||
% (n) | |||||
1 symptom | 23.7 (136) | ||||
2 symptoms | 15.4 (88) | ||||
3 symptoms | 7.9 (45) | ||||
4 symptoms | 7.9 (45) | ||||
5 symptoms | 0.5 (3) | ||||
At least 2 out of 5 symptoms | 31.6 (181) |
Crude associations between IPV and self-reported symptoms of depression
Explanatory variables and potential confounders | Self-reported symptoms of depression past 12 months | |
---|---|---|
Experienced ≥ 2 out of 5 symptoms | Crude OR (95% CI) | |
% (n) | ||
Controlling behavior past 12 months | ||
Unexposed | 61.5 (104) | 1 |
Exposed (≥1 of the items) | 38.5 (65) | 2.43 (1.63–3.63) |
Physical violence past 12 months | ||
Unexposed | 84.6 (143) | 1 |
Exposed (≥1 of the items) | 15.4 (26) | 3.78 (1.99–7.17) |
Sexual violence past 12 months | ||
Unexposed | 93.5 (158) | 1 |
Exposed (≥1 of the items) | 6.5 (11) | 5.10 (1.74–14.91) |
Age groups | ||
26–65 | 86.7 (157) | 1 |
18–25 | 13.3 (24) | 1.49 (0.86–2.58) |
Civil status | ||
Married, cohabitant, registered partnership, boy- or girlfriend | 77.2 (139) | 1 |
Single, widowed, divorced | 22.8 (41) | 1.46 (1.53–3.96) |
Educational level | ||
University/ High school | 83.9 (151) | 1 |
Elementary school | 16.1 (29) | 1.00 (0.62–1.62) |
Employment status | ||
Employed, parental leave, leave of absence | 64.1 (116) | 1 |
Student, unemployed, sick-leave, early retirement /retired, home-worker, other | 35.9 (65) | 2.45 (1.64–3.64) |
Social support | ||
Good | 50.3 (88) | 1 |
Poor | 49.7 (87) | 2.45 (1.70–3.56) |
Grown up with- and witnessed IPV | ||
No/ Unsure | 85.4 (152) | 1 |
Witnessed violence | 14.6 (26) | 3.92 (2.05–7.52) |
Adjusted associations between IPV and self-reported symptoms of depression
Explanatory variables and confounders | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 |
---|---|---|---|
Controlling behavior past 12 months | |||
(Unexposed vs. Exposed)
| 2.44 (1.61–3.71) | 2.27 (1.48–3.50) | 2.43 (1.56–3.79) |
Age | |||
(26–65 years vs 18–25)
| 0.85 (0.46–1.59) | 0.90 (0.48–1.68) | 0.83 (0.44–1.60) |
Civil status | |||
(Married, cohabitant vs. single, divorced)
| 2.51 (1.43–4.41) | 2.62 (1.48–4.64) | 2.75 (1.53–4.95) |
Employment status | |||
(Employed vs. not employed)
| 2.19 (1.42–3.40) | 1.94 (1.23–3.06) | 1.97 (1.23–3.14) |
Social support | |||
(Good vs. poor)
| 1.90 (1.27–2.86) | 1.88 (1.24–2.85) | |
Grown up with- and witnessed IPV | |||
(No/ unsure vs. witnessed IPV)
| 3.92 (1.72–8.91) | ||
Physical violence past 12 months | |||
(Unexposed vs. Exposed)
| 3.60 (1.84–7.04) | 3.01 (1.52–5.98) | 3.06 (1.50–6.24) |
Age | |||
(26–65 years vs 18–25)
| 0.86 (0.46–1.60) | 0.86 (0.46–1.62) | 0.81 (0.42–1.54) |
Civil status | |||
(Married, cohabitant vs. single, divorced)
| 2.61 (1.46–4.65) | 2.73 (1.52–4.92) | 2.80 (1.53–5.13) |
Employment status | |||
(Employed vs. not employed)
| 2.26 (1.46–3.50) | 2.03 (1.28–3.21) | 2.06 (1.30–3.29) |
Social support | |||
(Good vs. poor)
| 1.92 (1.28–2.88) | 1.92 (1.27–2.90) | |
Grown up with- and witnessed IPV | |||
(No/ unsure vs. witnessed IPV)
| 3.56 (1.58–8.02) | ||
S | |||
(Unexposed vs. Exposed)
| 5.02 (1.52–16.57) | 4.47 (1.31–15.26) | 4.67 (1.35–16.18) |
Age | |||
(26–65 years vs 18–25)
| 0.93 (0.50–1.73) | 0.93 (0.49–1.75) | 0.85 (0.44–1.64) |
Civil status | |||
(Married, cohabitant vs. single, divorced)
| 2.62 (1.48–4.64) | 2.71 (1.51–4.88) | 2.77 (1.52–5.01) |
Employment status | |||
(Employed vs. not employed)
| 2.13 (1.38–3.30) | 1.91 (1.21–3.01) | 1.96 (1.23–3.12) |
Social support | |||
(Good vs. poor)
| 2.09 (1.40–3.12) | 2.08 (1.38–3.13) | |
Grown up with- and witnessed IPV | |||
(No/ unsure vs. witnessed IPV)
| 3.53 (1.57–7.96) |