Introduction
Subjects and methods
Study population
Maternal protein intake
Body composition measurements
Covariates
Statistical methods
Results
Subject characteristics
Original data | Imputed dataa
| |
---|---|---|
Maternal characteristics (n = 2694)
| ||
Gestational age at enrollment (weeks) | 13.4 (12.2–15.5) | No missing values |
Age (years) | 31.7 ± 4.2 | No missing values |
Maternal education (%) | ||
Low and midlow (%) | 11.9 | 12.0 |
Midhigh (%) | 53.0 | 53.0 |
High (%) | 35.1 | 35.1 |
Missing (%) | 1.3 | |
Nulliparity (%) | 61.9 | 61.8 |
Missing (%) | 0.1 | |
Body mass index at enrollment (kg/m2) | 23.4 (21.6–26.0) | 23.4 (21.6–26.0) |
Missing (%) | 0.5 | |
Gestational weight gainb (g/week) | 503 ± 196 | 475 ± 204 |
Missing (%) | 17.6 | |
Smoking during pregnancy | ||
Never (%) | 75.9 | 76.1 |
Until pregnancy was known (%) | 9.5 | 9.5 |
Continued (%) | 14.6 | 14.4 |
Missing (%) | 7.8 | |
Alcohol during pregnancy | ||
Never (%) | 31.4 | 31.2 |
Until pregnancy was known (%) | 16.7 | 16.7 |
Continued (%) | 51.8 | 52.0 |
Missing (%) | 8.5 | |
Alcohol consumption (g/day) | 0.0 (0.0–0.7) | No missing values |
Folic acid supplementation | ||
No (%) | 9.2 | 9.5 |
Started <10 weeks of gestation (%) | 90.8 | 90.5 |
Missing (%) | 17.7 | |
Energy intake (kcal/day) | 2153 ± 503 | No missing values |
Protein intake (g/day) | ||
Total protein | 80 ± 19 | No missing values |
Animal protein | 49 ± 14 | No missing values |
Vegetable protein | 31 ± 9 | No missing values |
Protein intake (E%) | ||
Total protein | 15 ± 2 | No missing values |
Animal protein | 9 ± 2 | No missing values |
Vegetable protein | 6 ± 1 | No missing values |
Pregnancy outcomes | ||
Hypertensive complications (%) | 7.3 | Not imputed |
Missing (%) | 3.2 | Not imputed |
Gender, boy (%) | 50.1 | No missing values |
Birth weight (g) | 3503 ± 541 | 3503 ± 540 |
Missing (%) | 0.1 | |
Gestational age at birth (weeks) | 40.0 ± 1.7 | No missing values |
Preterm birth (%) | 4.2 | No missing values |
Breastfeeding at 2 months (%) | 69.8 | 68.0 |
Missing (%) | 15.0 | |
Dietary intake of the children at 13 months of age
| ||
Energy intake (kcal/day) | 1300 ± 342 | Not imputed |
Missing (%) | 40.9 | |
Protein intake (g/day) | 41 ± 11 | Not imputed |
Protein intake (E%) | 13 ± 2 | Not imputed |
Missing (%) | 40.9 | |
Children’s characteristics at 6 years of age
| ||
Age (years) | 6.1 ± 0.4 | No missing values |
Playing sports (%) | 50.0 | 49.9 |
Missing (%) | 6.3 | |
≥2 h/day screen time (%) | 19.9 | 20.8 |
Missing (%) | 15.2 | |
Height of the children (cm) | 120 ± 6 | No missing values |
Overweight/obese (%) | 11.3 | Not Imputed |
Missing (%) | 0.2 | |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 15.7 (15.0–16.6) | No missing values |
Fat mass index (kg/m2) | 3.6 (3.1–4.2) | Not imputed |
Missing (%) | 2.6 | |
Fat-free mass index (kg/m2) | 11.9 ± 0.8 | Not imputed |
Missing (%) | 2.6 | |
Total fat percentage (%) | 23 (21–27) | Not imputed |
Missing (%) | 2.6 | |
Android/gynoid fat mass ratio | 0.24 (0.21–0.27) | Not imputed |
Missing (%) | 2.6 |
Protein intake during pregnancy and body composition in childhood
Childhood body mass index (SDS, n = 2694) | Fat-free mass index (SDS, n = 2624) | Fat mass index (SDS, n = 2624) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1a
| Model 2b
| Model 1a
| Model 2b
| Model 1a
| Model 2b
| |
β (95 % CI) |
β (95 % CI) |
β (95 % CI) |
β (95 % CI) |
β (95 % CI) |
β (95 % CI) | |
Total protein intakec
| ||||||
Quartile 1 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Quartile 2 | −0.03 (−0.14, 0.07) | 0.03 (−0.08, 0.14) |
0.10 (0.00, 0.20)
| 0.10 (−0.00, 0.20) | −0.10 (−0.20, 0.00) | −0.02 (−0.12, 0.08) |
Quartile 3 | 0.00 (−0.11, 0.11) | 0.07 (−0.04, 0.18) |
0.12 (0.02, 0.22)
| 0.10 (−0.00, 0.20) | −0.08 (−0.18, 0.02) | 0.02 (−0.08, 0.13) |
Quartile 4 | 0.02 (−0.08, 0.13) | 0.09 (−0.03, 0.20) |
0.17 (0.07, 0.27)
|
0.14 (0.03, 0.25)
| −0.10 (−0.20, 0.00) | 0.01 (−0.09, 0.12) |
p for trend | 0.56 | 0.10 |
0.001
|
0.02
| 0.09 | 0.61 |
Animal protein intakec
| ||||||
Quartile 1 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Quartile 2 | 0.03 (−0.07, 0.14) | 0.08 (−0.03, 0.19) | 0.10 (−0.00, 0.20) | 0.10 (−0.00, 0.20) | 0.01 (−0.09, 0.11) | 0.07 (−0.03, 0.17) |
Quartile 3 | 0.04 (−0.07, 0.14) | 0.08 (−0.03, 0.19) |
0.11 (0.01, 0.21)
| 0.09 (−0.01, 0.20) | −0.02 (−0.12, 0.08) | 0.05 (−0.05, 0.15) |
Quartile 4 | 0.07 (−0.04, 0.18) |
0.12 (0.00. 0.24)
|
0.18 (0.08, 0.28)
|
0.16 (0.05, 0.27)
| −0.03 (−0.14, 0.07) | 0.05 (−0.06, 0.17) |
p for trend | 0.23 | 0.06 |
0.001
|
0.01
| 0.45 | 0.46 |
Vegetable protein intakec
| ||||||
Quartile 1 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Quartile 2 | −0.07 (−0.18, 0.04) | 0.03 (−0.07, 0.14) | 0.06 (−0.04, 0.16) | 0.07 (−0.03, 0.17) | −0.10 (−0.20, 0.01) | 0.02 (−0.08, 0.12) |
Quartile 3 | −0.03 (−0.13, 0.08) |
0.11 (0.00, 0.22)
|
0.14 (0.04, 0.24)
|
0.15 (0.04, 0.25)
| −0.11 (−0.21, −0.01)
| 0.07 (−0.04, 0.17) |
Quartile 4 | −0.03 (−0.14, 0.08) |
0.13 (0.01, 0.24)
|
0.22 (0.12, 0.32)
|
0.22 (0.11, 0.33)
| −0.19 (−0.30, −0.09)
| 0.02 (−0.09, 0.13) |
p for trend | 0.75 |
0.01
|
<0.001
|
<0.001
|
0.001
| 0.58 |
Secondary analyses
Fat-free mass index (SDS, n = 2624) |
β (95 % CI) |
---|---|
Protein (E%) | |
Substitution for carbohydrate |
0.03 (0.01, 0.04)
|
Substitution for monosaccharides and disaccharides |
0.03 (0.01, 0.04)
|
Substitution for polysaccharides | 0.02 (−0.00, 0.04) |
Substitution for fat |
0.03 (0.02, 0.05)
|
Substitution for saturated fat | 0.02 (−0.00, 0.05) |
Substitution for unsaturated fat |
0.04 (0.02, 0.05)
|
Substitution for alcohol | 0.03 (−0.03, 0.10) |
Animal protein (E%) | |
Substitution for carbohydrate |
0.03 (0.01, 0.04)
|
Substitution for monosaccharides and disaccharides |
0.02 (0.01, 0.04)
|
Substitution for polysaccharides |
0.03 (0.01, 0.05)
|
Substitution for fat |
0.03 (0.01, 0.05)
|
Substitution for saturated fat | 0.01 (−0.01, 0.04) |
Substitution for unsaturated fat |
0.04 (0.02, 0.06)
|
Substitution for alcohol | 0.02 (−0.04, 0.09) |
Vegetable protein (E%) | |
Substitution for carbohydrate |
0.07 (0.04, 0.11)
|
Substitution for monosaccharides and disaccharides |
0.10 (0.05, 0.15)
|
Substitution for polysaccharides |
0.10 (0.04, 0.16)
|
Substitution for fat |
0.08 (0.04, 0.12)
|
Substitution for saturated fat |
0.09 (0.04, 0.14)
|
Substitution for unsaturated fat |
0.11 (0.06, 0.17)
|
Substitution for alcohol | 0.07 (−0.00, 0.14) |