Background
Method
Sample and sampling procedure
Sample characteristics | Men | Women | Total sample |
---|---|---|---|
(N = 1130) | (N = 1320) | (N = 2450) | |
Age group, N (%) | |||
18–24 | 88 (7.8%) | 93 (7.0%) | 181 (7.4%) |
25–34 | 150 (13.3%) | 188 (14.2%) | 338 (13.8%) |
35–44 | 183 (16.2%) | 218 (16.5%) | 401 (16.4%) |
45–54 | 221 (19.6%) | 264 (20.0%) | 485 (19.8%) |
55–64 | 225 (19.9%) | 251 (19.0%) | 476 (19.4%) |
65–74 | 177 (15.7%) | 183 (13.9%) | 360 (14.7%) |
> 74 | 86 (7.6%) | 123 (9.3%) | 209 (8.5%) |
Living with a partner, N (%) | 702 (63.1%) | 740 (57.2%) | 1442 (59.9%) |
Having at least 1 child, N (%) | 208 (18.4%) | 341 (25.8%) | 549 (22.4%) |
Member of a church, N (%) | 770 (68.5%) | 984 (74.8%) | 1754 (71.9%) |
Level of education attained, N (%) | |||
Completed Year 9 | 429 (38.0%) | 454 (34.4%) | 883 (36.0%) |
Completed Year 10 | 412 (36.5%) | 573 (43.5%) | 985 (40.2%) |
Completed Year 12 | 118 (10.4%) | 120 (9.1%) | 238 (9.7%) |
University Degree | 133 (11.8%) | 122 (9.2%) | 255 (10.4%) |
Other | 38 (3.4%) | 51 (3.9%) | 89 (3.5%) |
Employment status, N (%) | |||
In Training | 48 (4.3%) | 47 (3.5%) | 95 (3.8%) |
Working (> 35 h) | 605 (53.8%) | 388 (29.5%) | 993 (40.7%) |
Working (< 35 h) | 51 (4.5%) | 316 (24.0%) | 367 (15.0%) |
Unemployed | 74 (6.6%) | 77 (5.9%) | 151 (6.2%) |
Homemaker | 10 (0.9%) | 93 (7.1%) | 103 (4.2%) |
Retired | 334 (29.7%) | 377 (28.6%) | 711 (29.1%) |
Other | 2 (0.2%) | 18 (1.4%) | 20 (0.8%) |
Missing | 6 (0.5%) | 4 (0.3%) | 10 (0.4%) |
Monthly household income in €, N (%) | |||
< 1250 | 168 (14.9%) | 291 (22.0%) | 459 (18.7%) |
1250–2000 | 299 (26.5%) | 365 (27.7%) | 664 (27.1%) |
> 2000 | 633 (56.0%) | 630 (47.7%) | 1263 (51.6%) |
Missing | 30 (2.7%) | 34 (2.6%) | 64 (2.6%) |
Questionnaires
The Beck hopelessness scale (BHS)
Item | Item content | Endorsement rate | SE |
P
i
|
r
it
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1* | hope and enthusiasm | 0.19 | 0.008 | 19 | .56 |
2 | might as well give up | 0.13 | 0.007 | 13 | .49 |
3* | bad things won’t stay forever | 0.08 | 0.005 | 8 | .33 |
4 | can’t imagine live in 10 years | 0.51 | 0.010 | 51 | .25 |
5* | enough time for accomplishments | 0.21 | 0.008 | 21 | .48 |
6* | expect to succeed | 0.13 | 0.007 | 13 | .57 |
7 | dark future | 0.14 | 0.007 | 14 | .64 |
8* | particularly lucky | 0.55 | 0.010 | 55 | .20 |
9 | can’t get the breaks | 0.25 | 0.009 | 25 | .46 |
10* | well prepared for the future | 0.10 | 0.006 | 10 | .45 |
11 | unpleasantness ahead | 0.19 | 0.008 | 19 | .64 |
12 | don’t expect to get what I really want | 0.35 | 0.010 | 35 | .50 |
13* | future will be happier | 0.52 | 0.010 | 52 | .03 |
14 | things just don’t work out | 0.31 | 0.009 | 31 | .57 |
15* | faith in the future | 0.21 | 0.008 | 21 | .57 |
16 | never get what I want | 0.13 | 0.007 | 13 | .53 |
17 | real satisfaction unlikely | 0.18 | 0.008 | 18 | .63 |
18 | future vague and uncertain | 0.30 | 0.009 | 30 | .59 |
19* | more good times | 0,19 | 0.008 | 19 | .53 |
20 | no use in trying | 0.21 | 0.008 | 21 | .56 |
M | SD |
P
i
| |||
BHS-sum score | 4.87 | 4.33 | 24 | – |
The Beck scale for suicide ideation (BSS)
The patient health questionnaire 2 (PHQ-2)
Life satisfaction questionnaire (FLZ)
Imputation of missing data
Psychometric analysis
Internal consistency reliability
Item analysis
Factorial validity
Measurement invariance
Construct validity
Results
Item characteristics
Factor structure
Bi-factor model | Unidimensional model | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Item | Item content | Factor 1 (content) | Factor 2(method pos.) | Factor 2(method neg.) | General factor |
1* | hope and enthusiasm | 0.686 | 0.515 | – | 0.769 |
2 | might as well give up | 0.674 | – | 0.403 | 0.751 |
3* | bad things won’t stay forever | 0.563 | 0.217 | – | 0.572 |
4 | can’t imagine live in 10 years | 0.358 | – | 0.167 | 0.377 |
5* | enough time for accomplishments | 0.583 | 0.504 | – | 0.671 |
6* | expect to succeed | 0.733 | 0.519 | – | 0.815 |
7 | dark future | 0.910 | – | 0.116 | 0.878 |
8* | particularly lucky | 0.195 | 0.516 | – | 0.292 |
9 | can’t get the breaks | 0.588 | – | 0.438 | 0.678 |
10* | well prepared for the future | 0.652 | 0.404 | – | 0.706 |
11 | unpleasantness ahead | 0.850 | – | 0.263 | 0.870 |
12 | don’t expect to get what I really want | 0.633 | – | 0.390 | 0.705 |
13* | future will be happier | −0.081 | 0.488 | – | 0.034 |
14 | things just don’t work out | 0.770 | – | 0.262 | 0.793 |
15* | faith in the future | 0.697 | 0.476 | – | 0.765 |
16 | never get what I want | 0.668 | – | 0.593 | 0.825 |
17 | real satisfaction unlikely | 0.797 | – | 0.409 | 0.871 |
18 | future vague and uncertain | 0.861 | – | 0.020 | 0.800 |
19* | more good times | 0.681 | 0.385 | – | 0.725 |
20 | no use in trying | 0.646 | – | 0.636 | 0.812 |
Variable |
M
|
SD
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. BHS | 4.87 | 4.33 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
2. Feelings about the future | 1.44 | 1.57 | .78 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
3. Loss of motivation | 1.52 | 2.05 | .87 | .46 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
4. Future expectations | 1.91 | 1.54 | .86 | .56 | .63 | – | – | – | – | – |
5. PHQ-2 | 0.94 | 1.18 | .53 | .37 | .48 | .47 | – | – | – | – |
6. FLZ-8 | 29.25 | 6.09 | −.53 | −.40 | −.43 | −.52 | −.51 | – | – | – |
7. BSS-Screen | 0.22 | 0.98 | .36 | .27 | .33 | .29 | .33 | −.27 | – | – |
8. Suicide attempt | 0.05 | 0.21 | .35 | .27 | .32 | .29 | .30 | −.25 | .76 | – |
9. Death wish | 0.05 | 0.25 | .30 | .24 | .27 | .25 | .31 | −.25 | .87 | .56 |
Measurement invariance
Model |
X
2
|
df
|
CFI
|
RMSEA
| 95% CI | ΔCFI | ΔRMSEA | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group = Gender | ||||||||
One factor | Configural | 1.635.501 | 238 | 0.945 | 0.063 | [0.060,0.066] | – | – |
Weak / strong | 1.625.190 | 254 | 0.948 | 0.066 | [0.063,0.070] | 0.003 | 0.003 | |
Strict | 1.480.973 | 270 | 0.954 | 0.061 | [0.058,0.064] | 0.006 | −0.005 | |
bi-factor | Configural | 682.7209 | 299 | 0.986 | 0.032 | [0.029,0.036] | – | – |
Weak / strong | 711.6125 | 336 | 0.986 | 0.030 | [0.0278,0.033] | < 0.001 | −0.002 | |
Strict | 674.5467 | 354 | 0.989 | 0.027 | [0.024,0.030] | 0.003 | −0.003 | |
Goup = Depression (PHQ-2 score < 3, PHQ-2 score ≥ 3) | ||||||||
One factor | Configural | 1.613.255 | 238 | 0.927 | 0.069 | [0.066,0.072] | – | – |
Weak / strong | 1.618.950 | 254 | 0.927 | 0.066 | [0.063,0.069] | < 0.001 | −0.003 | |
Strict | 1.520.225 | 270 | 0.933 | 0.062 | [0.059, 0.065] | 0.006 | −0.004 | |
bi-factor | Configural | 673.1354 | 299 | 0.981 | 0.032 | [0.029, 0.035] | – | – |
Weak / strong | 1023.4319 | 336 | 0.965 | 0.041 | [0.038, 0.044] | −0.016 | 0.009 | |
Strict | 961.7185 | 354 | 0.969 | 0.037 | [0.035, 0.040] | 0.004 | −0.004 |