Although the literature supports the health benefits of dog ownership and dog walking, there is insufficient evidence to fully characterize the specific risks and benefits of off-leash dog parks. There are many studies investigating the effect of dog ownership on human health, but limited research into off-leash dog parks, their location/area type, and influence on public health. Many studies have also been limited to Caucasian dog owners of middle to higher socioeconomic statuses, indicating potential ethnographic/demographic biases. Finally, the preponderance of studies reliant on qualitative data and self-reporting makes generalizability and comparisons challenging. Nonetheless, the existing literature may be supplemented with examples of successful implementation in order to inform a discussion of measures that can be taken to maximize potential benefits and minimize harms of off-leash dog parks.
Strategies to Maximize Benefits
Various park characteristics have been associated with increased physical activity among dog owners. Park features, such as a linear or walkthrough design, may deter sedentary behaviour by encouraging dog-owners to walk alongside their dogs [
26]. Living near a designated off-leash area, and provision of dog litterbags and dog-related signage may also enhance dog-walking frequency [
17,
70‐
72]. Proper park maintenance and enhanced safety (including neighborhood traffic volume and speed restrictions, park lighting, and reduced crime levels) appear to influence the likelihood of use by dog walkers [
26,
73]. Durable, low-maintenance seating that faces the off-leash area can facilitate the social benefits of off-leash dog parks by balancing owner conversation with dog supervision [
42].
Alternatively, some on-leash parks also allow dogs to be walked off-leash during off-peak hours or less busy months in order to avoid safety concerns [
36]. This approach also been associated with a reduction in criminal activity, as these parks continue to be frequented at off-peak hours [
36,
37]. Many parks also fence off their designated off-leash areas and limit access to other parts of the park to on-leash dogs, allowing park goers to avoid unrestrained dogs if preferred [
9].
Strategies to Minimize Harm
Choice of location is key to ensuring safety, community satisfaction, and effective operation of the park. In order to mitigate safety concerns, particularly for vulnerable individuals such as children, off-leash dog parks should not be located directly adjacent to playgrounds or schools, nor interfere with established park uses [
37].
The design of dog parks can also limit the degree of potential risk. Secure fencing (i.e. a gated enclosure at least four feet high) may protect park users, including children and cyclists, from aggressive dogs in addition to setting a clear boundary [
74]. Provision of dog waste bags, access to waste receptacles that are routinely emptied, and signage reminding owners to pick up after their dogs, can reduce dog fouling [
74]. The availability of hand-sanitizing stations for dog park attendees can also reduce risk of disease transmission [
74]. Clearly visible rules, as well as following the example of fellow dog walkers, may result in improved compliance [
33].
Quick removal of dog feces may significantly reduce the likelihood that parasites incorporate into soil, greatly reducing the likelihood of transmission [
3]. Given that access to and contamination of water sources, including lakes and ditches, may increase the likelihood of disease transmission from dogs to humans [
75], off-leash dog parks should be located away from sources of standing water and run-off [
76]. Public messaging may advise owners that, if a dog is ill and/or known to be infected by a zoonotic pathogen, they should avoid walking them in busy park areas and bodies of water until treatment for the infection is completed [
60].
Education and awareness initiatives may also mitigate behaviours that increase risk of harm to dog owners and other park attendees. Encouraging responsible dog ownership (i.e. maintaining continuous vigilance over their pet during a park visit) and hygienic practices can help avoid risk of aggression/injuries and transmission of zoonotic pathogens [
74,
76]. Signs reminding attendees of park rules should be clear and visible, placed at park entrances, and include simple messages. These may also include maps of the designated off-leash zone, and contact information for reporting damage or making a complaint [
3]. Signs should emphasize the importance of hand washing and proper disposal of dog waste [
77]. Additional instructions may advise constant supervision and verbal control of the dog at all times, as well as the need for dogs to wear a valid license and be up-to-date on their vaccinations. It may also be beneficial to include messaging for owners to muzzle aggressive dogs and ensure they retain a leash in hand at all times while the dog is running free in cases where leashing may be required (i.e. if the dog is exhibiting aggressive behaviour) [
77]. Finally, signs should remind owners they are responsible for any damage or injury inflicted by their dog [
77].
Patrolling officers should be available to enforce policies that prevent rule violations, such as dog fouling and allowing aggressive dogs to remain unrestrained [
74]. Rules and regulations should be publicized, whether through signage or publication on a park-related website [
76]. Websites may also provide information on zoonoses and encourage regular veterinary check-ups [
60]. Veterinary assessment may identify risk factors and symptoms of zoonoses in dogs, with regular visits ensuring proper vaccination, regular deworming, and provision of health and hygiene messaging [
60]. As an example, the American Veterinary Medical Association published a pamphlet entitled “Internal Parasites in Cats and Dogs” that contains information on the most common parasites, detection methods and tips for prevention [
78].
In addition to education of dog owners, other park attendees, such as children, may benefit from initiatives that enhance their ability to interact with dogs in a way that is less likely to result in aggression or injuries [
60,
79,
80]. For example, educational programs in schools and children’s museum settings on basic safety rules, as well as interactive computer animations and picture books, have been designed to educate children and families about properly interacting with dogs to minimize risk of injury [
80].
Public Consultation and Evaluation
In order to address public concerns about the potential risks of proposed off-leash dog parks, decision-makers should be proactive and ensure broad community consultation. Clear descriptions of proposed plans for off-leash areas should be published in order to facilitate public feedback. Various stakeholders, including dog owners, non-dog owners, adjoining property owners, civic leagues, and animal health agencies should be consulted prior to initiating off-leash dog park development [
81].
Ongoing, bidirectional communication between municipal governments and stakeholders may also alleviate concerns, prevent conflicts, and ensure continued community satisfaction/safety once an off-leash area has been opened. Mechanisms allowing park users and nearby residents to communicate park-related concerns with the relevant officials may inform ongoing park evaluation and improvements in response to perceived risks. This could be achieved via online polls, email lists, or scheduled meetings, as well as other technologies, including texting or phone applications [
76,
77].