Background
The most important DNA mismatch repair (MMR) protein commonly dysregulated in colon cancer is MLH1. MLH1 is the main component of the heterodimer MutLα, formed by MLH1 and PMS2. Germline mutations in MLH1 are responsible for 50% of a hereditary form of colorectal cancer (CRC) called Lynch syndrome [
1]. In addition, 13-15% of sporadic CRCs are caused by MLH1 deficiency based on somatic promotor hypermethylation [
2,
3].
Looking at functionality, MutLα is mainly involved in the correction of base-base mismatches and insertion-deletion loops resulting from defective DNA replication [
4]. Besides, recent studies suggest that MLH1 also participates in other important fundamental cellular functions beyond its primary role in MMR, e.g., the regulation of cell cycle checkpoints and apoptosis [
5], but also in meiotic reciprocal recombination and meiotic mismatch repair [
6]. Several MLH1 interacting proteins have been published, which might be essential for signaling DNA damages to different cellular processes [
7‐
11]. Amongst them we identified non-erythroid spectrin αII (SPTAN1) as a novel interaction partner of MLH1 and found evidence for the involvement of both proteins in cytoskeletal and filamental organization [
12].
SPTAN1 belongs to a superfamily of F-actin cross-linking proteins (scaffolding proteins) which, first identified as membrane-skeleton components in erythrocytes, are ubiquitously expressed in metazoan cells [
13]. Spectrins contribute to cell adhesion and migration [
14], interact with structural and regulatory proteins [
15‐
17] and are involved in the regulation of DNA repair [
18,
19]. Deregulation of spectrins, especially of SPTAN1 seriously affects cellular behavior and promotes tumor progression. Upregulated SPTAN1, e.g., was demonstrated in various types of tumors [
20‐
23] and shown to be associated with local aggressiveness and metastic behavior of soft tissue carcinomas [
24]. Moreover, enhanced SPTAN1 was linked to tumor progression and malignancy in ovarian cancer [
25] and described to be involved in the carcinogenesis of sporadic CRC [
21].
After i) identification of MLH1-SPTAN1 protein-protein interaction [
12], ii) knowledge of MLH1 capacity to stabilize its partner proteins [
26,
27] and iii) indications that MLH1 deficient tumors are less aggressive and distant metastasis are less common than in MMR proficient forms [
28,
29], we propose a MLH1 dependent role of SPTAN1 for cellular motility, metastasis and aggressiveness of CRC.
Using different MLH1 deficient and proficient cell lines, paraffin embedded as well as fresh tumor tissue, we show for the first time that MLH1 deficiency decreases SPTAN1 expression with the functional consequence of impaired cellular migration.
Discussion
The functionality of the DNA mismatch repair protein MLH1 is apparently of great diversity. MLH1 was not only described to be involved in MMR but also in many other essential cellular processes ranging from the regulation of cell cycle checkpoints, apoptosis, meiotic reciprocal recombination, meiotic mismatch repair to cytoskeletal organization [
5,
6,
12,
34]. An active dialogue of the MMR system with the cellular cytoskeleton might be postulated since MMR deficient Lynch syndrome tumors and sporadic CRCs with MLH1 defect seem to be less aggressive than MMR proficient forms. Gryfe and coworkers e.g. tested specimens of colorectal cancer from a population-based series of 607 patients and found that lymph node metastases are less common in the MMR deficient form [
28]. Moreover, Jeong et al. showed that distant metastases are less frequent in MMR deficient sporadic CRCs [
29]. However, the underlying mechanisms are still unknown.
In the present study we focused on the relationship of MLH1 to cytoskeletal associated SPTAN1 [
12] and found a clear correlation between MLH1 deficiency and SPTAN1 impairment in different cell lines as well as in fresh or paraffin embedded invasive growing CRC tissue. We detected SPTAN1 reduction mainly in the cytoplasm of cells which leads us to the assumption that the interaction of MLH1 and SPTAN1 might take place rather in the cytoplasm than in the nucleus [
35]. However, the connection between MLH1 deficiency and SPTAN1 reduction was detectable not only on protein but partly also on mRNA level. While the MLH1 dependent decrease of SPTAN1 expression might be easily explainable by missing MLH1 protein stabilization and has been shown for other MLH1 partner proteins before [
26,
27], the explanation for reduced SPTAN1 mRNA levels in four of six cancer cell lines detectable after siRNA-specific down knocking of MLH1 using two different siRNAs seems to be more difficult. One might hypothesize that MLH1 and SPTAN1 are members of one complex and are functionally co-regulated. Thus, cellular monitoring of impaired MLH1 might rapidly lead to SPTAN1 reduction through an enzymatic breakdown of RNA transcripts and existing protein molecules. This assumption is supported by several publications showing that proteins of protein complexes are co-expressed both in terms of mRNA levels and expression profiles [
36,
37]. However, since the demonstrated siRNA results were inhomogeneous we cannot exclude unspecific off-target siRNA effects which were demonstrated to be due to the nature of RNA interference [
38‐
40].
In addition, our data demonstrate that the MLH1 dependent reduction of SPTAN1 changed the cellular mobility and impaired the migration ability of affected cells. The observed correlation between extenuated SPTAN1 and decreased cell mobility is in line with data from Metral et al., who found a tight involvement of SPTAN1 in actin organization [
41], and Sormunen and co-workers, who demonstrated that the composition and interplay of the E-cadherin/β-catenin/SPTAN1/cytoskeleton-complex is of great importance for cell-to-cell adhesion and cell shape [
42]. Besides, the present observation also matches the MLH1 dependent cytoskeleton alteration of HeLa cells previously detected by us [
12]. Therefore, we postulate that MLH1 dependent SPTAN1 reduction might induce changes in actin filaments and finally the cytoskeleton leading to impaired migration.
Material and methods
Patients
Paraffin-embedded tissue from 11 patients with surgically resected well characterized CRC specimens were selected for immunhistochemical analysis: 4 were from Lynch syndrome patients caused by pathogenic MLH1 mutations, 4 were sporadic CRCs with MLH1 defect caused by hypermethylation of the MLH1 promoter associated with BRAF V600E mutation and 3 tumors were MMR proficient sporadic CRCs.
Characteristics of the analyzed patients-tissue are summarized in Table
1.
MLH1 as well as SPTAN1 expression was analyzed in triplicate, respectively, of every tumor and tumor surrounding tissue using immunohistochemistry.
In parallel, a fresh (MLH1 promotor hypermethylated) tumor biopsy and the corresponding normal tissue were exemplarily taken from one CRC patient to perform Western blot analysis of MLH1 and SPTAN1.
The study was approved by the local ethic committees of Frankfurt/Main (Germany), Bonn (Germany) and Homburg Saar (Germany). All patients gave informed consent.
Cell lines
HeLa (ATCC number CCL-2), HEK293 (ATCC number: CRL-1573) and LoVo (ATCC number: CCL-229) were purchased from American Type Culture. HEK293T cells, obtained from Dr. Kurt Ballmer (Paul Scherer Institute, Villingen, Switzerland) were grown in DMEM with 10% FCS. As previously described, MLH1 is not expressed in HEK293T [
32]. Stably transfected HCT116 cells: HCT116 mlh 0-1 transfected with the pcDNA3.1+ vector and HCT116 mlh 1-2 as well as HCT116 mlh 1-3 transfected with pcDNA3.1+ containing the entire open reading frame of MLH1 obtained for Prof. Francoise Praz (Institute Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France) were grown in DMEM with 10% FCS and hygromycin B (100 μg/ml) [
31]. Doxycycline inducible HEK293T MLH1+ cells, obtained from Prof. Josef Jiricny (University of Zurich, Institute of Molecular Cancer Research, Zurich, Switzerland), were cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% Tet System-approved fetal calf serum, hygromycin B (300 mg/ml), and Zeocin (100 mg/ml). To abrogate MLH1 expression, the cells (HEK293T MLH1-) were cultured for 4 days in the presence of doxycyclin (50 ng/ml) [
43].
Antibodies and plasmids
Anti-SPTAN1 (C-11), anti-Lamin B (C-20) and anti-MSH2 (H-300) were obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA), anti-MLH1 (G168-728) as well as anti-gamma Adaptin (88) were from Pharmingen (BD Biosciences, United States), anti-beta Actin (Clone AC-15) was purchased from Sigma (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) and anti-SPTAN1 (MAB1622) was from Millipore (Millipore, USA).
The pcDNA3.1+/MLH1, pcDNA3.1+/PMS2 and pcDNA3.1+/MSH2 expression plasmids were described previously [
27]. Full length SPTAN1 cDNA was generated from total RNA of human lymphocytes and subcloned into the eukaryotic expression vector pcDNA3.1- via the KpnI/XhoI restriction sites.
All plasmids were confirmed by sequencing and reading frames were corrected using site-directed mutagenesis, if necessary. All oligonucleotides were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Munich, Germany).
siRNA treatment and real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR)
Different stably transfected HCT116 cells (HCT116 mlh 1-2 and HCT116 mlh 1-3), HEK293 and HeLa cells were treated with siRNA according to manufacturer’s protocol (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). In brief, 100 μl of OPTI-MEM (Gibco, Biocompare, San Francisco, CA) was mixed with 5 μl siPORT NeoFx Transfection Agent (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) and incubated for 10 min at room temperature. 100 μl of OPTI-MEM containing 30 nM of Silencer Validated siRNA MLH1 (siRNA1) (Applied Biosystems, ID# 119549), 5 nM of Silencer Select siRNA MLH1 (siRNA2) (Ambion, ID# 4392420), 5 nM of Silencer siRNA SPTAN1 (Applied Biosystems, ID# s13405), or 30 nM of Silencer Negative Control siRNA (Applied Biosystems, ID#1), respectively was added and incubated for further 10 min at room temperature. 1×105 cells, diluted in DMEM medium with 10% FCS, were added to a final volume of 2.5 ml, the mixture was placed in a 6-well and incubated at 37°C with 5% CO2 for 24 h and 48 h. Thereafter, treated HCT116 mlh 1-2 and HCT116 mlh 1-3, HEK293 and HeLa cells were harvested, homogenized in Trizol reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) and RNA was isolated according to manufacturer’s protocol. The mRNA levels of MLH1, SPTAN1, or GAPDH (internal control) were determined by a real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) assay (TaqMan) with a pair of MLH1-, SPTAN1- or GAPDH-specific primers and MLH1-, SPTAN1- or GAPDH-specific probes (#Hs00179866-m1 MLH1, #Hs00162203_m1 SPTAN1, #Hs02786624_g1 GAPDH, Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA), respectively, on a StepOnePlus™ Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA).
Transient transfection
Transiently transfection or cotransfection of HEK293T cells was carried out as described previously [
26]. In brief, HEK293T were transfected at 50-70% confluence with expression plasmids, pcDNA3.1+/MLH1, pcDNA3.1+/PMS2, pcDNA3.1-/SPTAN1 or empty pcDNA3.1+ mock control (1 μg/ml, respectively) using 10 μl/ml of the cationic polymer polyethylenimine (Polysciences, Warrington, PA; stock solution 1 mg/ml). 24 h and 48 h post transfection cells extracts were prepared for Western blot analysis.
Nuclear and cytoplasmic protein extraction from cell culture and whole protein extraction from fresh tissue
Separation of proteins from cell cultures into nuclear and cytoplasmic fractions was carried out as previously described [
35]. Briefly, cells were harvested by centrifugation (10 min, 1000 g, 4°C), cell pellets were washed twice in PBS (4°C) and diluted in 250 μl hypotonic buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4, 10 mM NaCl, 3 mM MgCl
2, 0.5 mM DTT). After incubation on ice (15 min), 5% of NP-40 (10%) was added, samples were vortexed and centrifuged (10 min, 1000 g, 4°C). Supernatants containing cytoplasmic proteins were frozen and residual pellets were resuspended in cell extraction buffer (10 mM Tris/HCl pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1 mM NaF, 20 mM Na
4P
2O
7, 2 mM Na
3VO
4, 1% Triton X-100, 10% glycerol, 0.1% SDS, 0.5% Na-depoxycholate, 1 mM PMSF and 5% protease inhibitor cocktail (Sigma Aldrich, Munich, Germany)). Samples were incubated on ice (30 min), sonicated (10 sec) and centrifuged (13000 U/min, 4°C, 30 min). Dissolved nuclear protein fractions were frozen (-80°C).
Fresh tissue biopsy sections (à 5 mg) were removed from 80°C, washed three times with PBS (4°C), transferred into a 15 ml Dounce Homogenizer tube and diluted with 150 μl (4°C) ready to use Cell Lysis Reagent (Sigma Aldrich, Munich, Germany). Biopsies were homogenized vigorously (10 min) on ice, transferred into 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes, sonicated (10 sec) and centrifuged (5 min, 1000 g, 4°C). Supernatants containing the proteins were placed in new Eppendorf tubes and frozen (-80°C).
Western blot analysis
Proteins were separated on 10% polyacrylamide gels, followed by Western blotting on nitrocellulose membranes and antibody detection using standard procedures or as described previously [
26].
The band intensity of SPTAN1 was quantified using Multi Gauge V3.2 program (Fujifilm, Tokyo, Japan).
All experiments were performed in quadruplicate.
Coimmunoprecipitation
Coimmunoprecipitation was carried out as previously described [
12]. For detection of endogenous protein-protein interaction coimmunoprecipitation was carried out using anti-MLH1 and anti-SPTAN1, respectively, in MLH1 proficient HEK293 cells. Immunoprecipitation with protein A/G sepharose served as negative and whole cell extract (50 μg) of HEK293 cells as positive control.
Immunohistochemical analysis
MLH1 and SPTAN1 expression was analyzed by immunohistochemistry using paraffin embedded invasive growing MLH1 deficient or MLH1 proficient colorectal tumor tissue. Immunohistochemical analysis of MLH1 expression was carried out as described before [
44].
For SPTAN1 detection, sections (2 μm) of representative samples were cut from paraffin embedded invasive growing colorectal carcinoma specimens. Normal colon mucosa served as an internal control. Sections were deparaffinized three times with Xylene and rehydrated in graded alcohol baths. Antigen retrieval by heating was required in a pressure cooker for 2 min with EDTA buffer, pH 8.0. This was followed by incubation of 5 min with 3% H2O2 for blocking endogenous peroxidase. Before and between different incubation steps, the sections were washed with 1× Envision Flex Wash Buffer (Dako, Germany). Primary antibody (Santa Cruz; mouse monoclonal antibody clone C-11; dilution 1:250) were diluted in Antibody diluent (Zytomed). Sections were incubated with the primary antibody for 30 min at room temperature followed by application of the EnVision-system (DakoCytomation) with horseradish peroxidase as enzyme and 3,3′diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride as chromogen. The sections were counterstained with Mayers hematoxylin (Applichem).
Immunhistochemical staining was examined using a Keyence microscope (Model BZ 9000 for a magnification of 100×, KEYENCE Co., Osaka, Japan).
Migration assay
Prior to initiating the migration assay, 1×104 cells per well were seeded in 96-well Essen ImageLock plates (Essen Bioscience, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA) and grown for 48 h to confluence under standard conditions. Then, cell-free zones were generated by using a 96-pin WoundMaker (Essen Bioscience, Ann Arbor, Ml) to simultaneously create wounds in all wells.
Thereafter, the plates were placed inside an automated microscope (IncuCyte™ (Essen Instruments)) which resides inside a standard cell culture incubator and equilibrated for 2 h before the first scan.
The cells were scanned every 3 h and the width of the cell-free zone was determined by IncuCyte™ software which is capable to identify the exact wound region.
To calculate the exact distance of cell migration the detected wound width of each time point was subtracted from the first measured wound width in the corresponding well. This value was divided by 2 and indicates the length (μm) of migration.
In parallel pictures were taken by IncuCyte from each well at every time point. The experiment was performed in triplicate.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
IH, BPE, FN and SP were involved in performing experiments, acquisition and analysis of data and drafting of manuscript. DS, VS and NF performed acquisition of patients, collection of tissues, analysis and interpretation of data and drafting of manuscript. GP and SZ participated in interpretation of data and helped to draft the manuscript. AB performed conception and design of study, preparation, analysis and interpretation of data, drafting and editing of manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.