Background
Methods
Construct/measure | Description | Notes |
---|---|---|
Cognitive factors: social cognitions | ||
HIV knowledge (Volpe et al. 2007) | 18 items, answered yes, no, do not know | Means are reported |
12 items answered on a 7-point scale, “not sure at all” to “completely sure” | Items included staying out of situations that lead to pressure to have sex | |
19 items answered on a 5-point Likert scale. Alpha reliability was .85 | The perceived consequences of enacting risk reduction behavior | |
Sex-related self-efficacy (Diiorio et al., 2001) | 12 items answered on a 7-point scale “not sure at all” to “completely sure” | Self-efficacy for safer sex behavior, e.g., using a condom, negotiating condom use |
Condom use outcome expectancy (Diiorio et al., 2001) | 9-item measure answered on a 5-point Likert scale; summed (higher = more favorable attitudes) | Self-evaluative, physical, and social expectancies of condom use (e.g., I will feel more responsible if I use a condom) |
Cognitive factors: behavioral intentions | ||
Behavioral intentions (Diiorio et al., 2002) | yes/no items | e.g., intention to have sex, limit sexual partners, talk to partners about HIV, use condoms every time |
Behavioral intentions (CAPS, 1994) | 2 items answered on a 5-point scale from “I would definitely” to “I would definitely not” | Whether they would refuse to have sex without a condom and whether they would insist even if partner disagreed |
Behavioral intentions (developed for the study) | Future plans, answered on a 5-point scale from “never” to “will definitely do frequently” | Having sexual intercourse, having condoms available, using condoms, talking to sexual partners |
Gender norms | ||
Gender norms (Silver et al., 2014) | 6 items answered on a 4-point Likert scale; parallel versions for boys and for girls; higher = higher endorsement of risk behaviors for that gender | Having sexual intercourse, having sex by certain ages, or having multiple partners make someone “cool” or “popular” |
Relationship factors | ||
Romantic Beliefs Scale (Marin,Coyle, Gomez, Carvahal & Kirby, 2000) | 5-items answered on a Likert scale | Adolescent beliefs about a romantic love relationship., e.g., If I love someone, I know I can make the relationship work, despite any obstacles |
Relationship expectations (Watnick et al., 2011) | 12 items answered on a 4-point Likert scale; two subscales. Relationship monitoring & control; emotional openness & availability. Items summed; higher = more positive expectations | e.g., when I have a girl/boyfriend… s/he will want to know where I am at all times;…“I will tell my partner how I feel about her/him” |
Resilience | ||
Resiliency scales for adolescents, profile of personal strengths (Prince-Embury, 2007) | Both raw scores and T-scores for normative groups by age and gender are available using a standardization sample of 200 teens matched to the US Census on ethnicity and parent education within sex and age bands | Measures personal attributes critical for overcoming life obstacles. Subscales are sense of mastery (optimism, self-efficacy, adaptability); sense of relatedness (trust, support, comfort, tolerance); and emotional reactivity (sensitivity, recovery, impairment) |
Behavior | ||
Items include ever having had sexual intercourse, age at initiation, # of partners, and condom use (for those reporting initiation) |
Results
Baseline Characteristics
TEEN (n = 197) 49.6% | Prepared (n = 200) 50.4% | Total (n = 397) | p value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age, mean (SD) | 13.4 (.8) | 13.5 (.8) | 13.4 (.8) | 0.26 |
% female | 99 (50.3%) | 98 (49.0%) | 197 (49.6%) | 0.80 |
Race/ethnicity | 0.72 | |||
Black | 84 (42.6%) | 92 (46.0%) | 176 (44.3%) | |
Latino | 101 (51.3%) | 96 (48.0%) | 197 (49.6%) | |
White/Asian | 2 (1.0%) | 4 (2.0%) | 6 (1.5%) | |
Mix/other | 10 (5.1%) | 8 (4.0%) | 18 (4.5%) | |
Household member receives public assistance | 0.36 | |||
Yes | 98 (49.7%) | 108 (54.0%) | 206 (51.9%) | |
No | 18 (9.1%) | 23 (11.5%) | 41 (10.3%) | |
Do not know | 81 (41.1%) | 69 (34.5%) | 150 (37.8%) | |
Participants’ family structure (cohabitants) | 0.11 | |||
Both biological parents | 77 (39.1%) | 97 (48.5%) | 174 (43.8%) | |
Single biological parent | 86 (43.7%) | 73 (36.5%) | 159 (40.1%) | |
Biological parent plus parent’s partner | 31 (15.7%) | 23 (11.5%) | 54 (13.6%) | |
All others | 3 (1.5%) | 7 (3.5%) | 10 (2.5%) |
Baseline Differences Between Groups
Change Over Time
Baseline | T2: 6 months | T3: 12 months | d2* | p value d2 | d3* | p value d3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TEEN (n = 197) | Prepared (n = 200) | TEEN (n = 157) | Prepared (n = 171) | TEEN (n = 147) | Prepared (n = 162) | |||||
Relationship factors | ||||||||||
Romantic Beliefs Scale | 9.5 | 9.5 | 9.5 | 9.9 | 9.8 | 10.0 | 0.23 | .40 | 0.16 | .57 |
Monitoring/control | 12.7 | 12.7 | 12.9 | 13.1 | 12.7 | 12.8 | 0.14 | .48 | 0.12 | .68 |
Openness | 10.1 | 10.3 | 10.0 | 10.4 | 10.2 | 10.3 | 0.21 | .31 | 0.04 | .85 |
Gender norms | ||||||||||
Endorse male sexual risk behaviors | 11.8 | 11.2 | 12.3 | 12.2 | 12.7 | 12.4 | 0.35 | .47 | 0.24 | .81 |
Endorse female sexual risk behaviors | 9.7 | 9.5 | 8.8 | 9.1 | 9.1 | 8.6 | 0.27 | .37 | − 0.10 | .86 |
Resilience (T-scores) | ||||||||||
Mastery (high = better mastery) | 48.1 | 48.0 | 48.8 | 48.4 | 47.8 | 48.6 | − 0.24 | .78 | 0.92 | .27 |
Interpersonal relationships (high = better relationships) | 47.0 | 46.8 | 46.9 | 48.3 | 46.7 | 46.9 | 1.50 | .24 | 0.33 | .82 |
Emotional reactivity (high = worse reactivity) | 50.9 | 49.9 | 50.9 | 49.2 | 51.5 | 51.1 | − 0.68 | .53 | 0.71 | .65 |
Cognitive factors: behavioral intentions | ||||||||||
Plan to have vaginal, anal, or oral sex (“sex”)+ | 30 (15%) | 27 (14%) | 34 (22%) | 29 (17%) | 34 (23%) | 34 (21%) | 0.85 | .60 | 1.02 | .96 |
Plan to talk to a partner about HIV/STIs + | 63 (32%) | 58 (29%) | 49 (31%) | 59 (35%) | 40 (27%) | 60 (37%) | 1.34 | .24 | 1.81 | .02 |
Would refuse sex without a condom | 169 (86%) | 168 (84%) | 136 (87%) | 144 (84%) | 126 (86%) | 140 (86%) | 0.95 | .87 | 1.22 | .60 |
Plan to carry a condom | 57 (29%) | 66 (33%) | 62 (40%) | 79 (46%) | 61 (42%) | 75 (46%) | 1.09 | .70 | 1.01 | .98 |
Cognitive factors: social cognitions | ||||||||||
HIV knowledge | 5.6 | 5.8 | 7.2 | 8.3 | 7.6 | 8.9 | 0.99 | .00 | 1.10 | .14 |
Abstinence outcome exp. | 58.6 | 58.8 | 58.1 | 58.9 | 58.4 | 58.8 | 0.51 | .55 | 0.12 | .92 |
Abstinence self-efficacy | 62.3 | 63.2 | 67.1 | 66.9 | 67.0 | 68.7 | − 1.13 | .28 | 0.77 | .47 |
Sexual self-efficacy | 61.0 | 60.7 | 64.9 | 66.8 | 63.8 | 67.3 | 2.27 | .03 | 3.27 | .00 |
Condom outcome exp. | 35.9 | 34.6 | 35.2 | 35.4 | 34.6 | 35.1 | 1.38 | .02 | 1.67 | .00 |
Females only | ||||||||||
T1: Baseline | T2: 6 months | T3: 12 months | d2* | p value d2 | d3* | p value d3 | ||||
TEEN (N = 99) | Prepared (N = 98) | TEEN (N = 80) | Prepared (N = 80) | TEEN (N = 78) | Prepared (N = 79) | |||||
Relationship expectations | ||||||||||
Romantic Beliefs Scale | 9.3 | 9.5 | 9.8 | 10.0 | 9.9 | 10.5 | − 0.05 | .90 | 0.44 | .28 |
Monitoring/control | 12.9 | 13.0 | 13.2 | 13.1 | 13.0 | 13.0 | − 0.14 | .64 | − 0.07 | .84 |
Openness | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.8 | 10.3 | 10.7 | 0.15 | .27 | 0.19 | .50 |
Gender norms | ||||||||||
Endorse male sexual risk behaviors | 11.0 | 10.9 | 11.9 | 12.1 | 13.5 | 12.5 | 0.12 | .90 | − 0.66 | .64 |
Endorse female sexual risk behavior | 7.8 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 7.7 | 9.5 | 8.1 | − 0.51 | .21 | − 1.37 | .02 |
Resilience (T-scores) | ||||||||||
Mastery | 48.2 | 48.3 | 48.6 | 47.2 | 48.3 | 47.9 | − 1.50 | .03 | − 0.51 | .46 |
Interpersonal relationships | 47.7 | 47.3 | 46.8 | 47.1 | 46.7 | 46.5 | 0.60 | .59 | 0.13 | .94 |
Emotional reactivity | 51.7 | 50.0 | 50.2 | 51.5 | 52.2 | 52.3 | 3.05 | .12 | 1.83 | .52 |
Cognitive factors: behavioral intentions, N (%) | ||||||||||
Plan to have sex+ | 12 (12%) | 9 (9%) | 14 (18%) | 10 (13%) | 11(14%) | 13 (17%) | 0.92 | .86 | 1.64 | .31 |
Plan to talk to partner about HIV/STIs+ | 27 (27%) | 25 (26%) | 26 (33%) | 19 (24%) | 22 (28%) | 19 (24%) | 0.71 | .35 | 0.88 | .74 |
Would refuse sex without a condom | 97 (98%) | 92 (94%) | 77 (96%) | 76 (95%) | 74 (95%) | 73 (92%) | 2.34 | .43 | 2.08 | .48 |
Plans to carry a condom | 21 (21%) | 21 (21%) | 29 (36%) | 26 (33%) | 29 (37%) | 23 (29%) | 0.84 | .61 | 0.69 | .33 |
Cognitive factors: social cognitions | ||||||||||
HIV knowledge | 6.0 | 6.2 | 8.3 | 9.3 | 8.7 | 9.5 | 0.80 | .07 | 0.53 | .51 |
Abstinence outcome exp. | 65.7 | 63.7 | 63.5 | 63.0 | 64.5 | 61.9 | 1.58 | .02 | − 0.53 | .69 |
Abstinence self-efficacy | 66.9 | 68.9 | 72.8 | 73.6 | 74.0 | 73.7 | − 1.30 | .31 | − 2.35 | .04 |
Sexual self-efficacy | 61.5 | 61.4 | 66.7 | 67.9 | 67.6 | 68.1 | 0.87 | .65 | 0.26 | .88 |
Condom outcome exp. | 36.5 | 34.6 | 36.2 | 35.9 | 36.1 | 35.3 | 1.27 | .10 | 0.90 | .26 |
Males only | ||||||||||
T1: Baseline | T2: 6 months | T3: 12 months | d2* | p value d2 | d3* | p value d3 | ||||
TEEN (N = 98) | Prepared (N = 102) | TEEN (N = 77) | Prepared (N = 91) | TEEN (N = 69) | Prepared (N = 83) | |||||
Relationship expectations | ||||||||||
Romantic Beliefs Scale | 9.7 | 9.6 | 9.2 | 9.8 | 9.7 | 9.6 | 0.52 | .12 | 0.52 | .12 |
Monitoring/control | 12.5 | 12.4 | 12.7 | 13.1 | 12.4 | 12.5 | 0.40 | .10 | 0.32 | .39 |
Openness | 9.8 | 10.0 | 9.5 | 10.1 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 0.27 | .48 | − 0.11 | .65 |
Gender norms | ||||||||||
Endorse male sexual risk behaviors | 12.5 | 11.4 | 12.7 | 12.2 | 12.1 | 12.3 | 0.59 | .29 | 1.17 | .23 |
Endorse female sexual risk behaviors | 11.5 | 10.6 | 9.8 | 10.3 | 8.6 | 9.1 | 1.05 | .03 | 1.23 | .14 |
Resilience (T-scores) | ||||||||||
Mastery | 48.0 | 47.7 | 49.0 | 49.6 | 47.2 | 49.4 | 0.85 | .47 | 2.56 | .16 |
Interpersonal relationships | 46.3 | 46.3 | 47.0 | 49.3 | 46.7 | 47.3 | 2.21 | .20 | 0.48 | .81 |
Emotional reactivity | 50.2 | 49.8 | 51.7 | 47.1 | 50.7 | 50.0 | − 4.16 | .11 | − 0.26 | .90 |
Cognitive factors: behavioral intentions, N (%) | ||||||||||
Plan to have sex+ | 18 (18%) | 18 (18%) | 20 (26%) | 19 (21%) | 23 (33%) | 21 (25%) | 0.79 | .56 | 0.71 | .43 |
Plan to talk to partner about HIV or STIs+ | 36 (37%) | 33 (32%) | 23 (30%) | 40 (44%) | 18 (26%) | 41 (49%) | 2.24 | .02 | 3.36 | .00 |
Would refuse sex without a condom | 72 (74%) | 76 (75%) | 59 (77%) | 68 (75%) | 52 (75%) | 67 (81%) | 0.86 | .70 | 1.30 | .57 |
Plan to carry a condom | 36 (37%) | 45 (44%) | 33 (43%) | 53 (58%) | 32(46%) | 52 (63%) | 1.37 | .28 | 1.43 | .28 |
Cognitive factors: social cognitions | ||||||||||
HIV knowledge | 5.2 | 5.4 | 6.0 | 7.5 | 6.4 | 8.4 | 1.33 | .07 | 1.82 | .10 |
Abstinence outcome exp. | 51.3 | 54.1 | 52.5 | 55.2 | 51.6 | 55.8 | − 0.10 | .92 | 1.45 | .37 |
Abstinence self-efficacy | 57.6 | 57.7 | 61.2 | 61.0 | 59.0 | 63.9 | − 0.20 | .90 | 4.78 | .00 |
Sexual self-efficacy | 60.6 | 60.1 | 62.9 | 65.8 | 59.5 | 66.5 | 3.69 | .02 | 6.33 | .00 |
Condom outcome exp. | 35.2 | 34.7 | 34.2 | 35.0 | 32.9 | 35.0 | 1.51 | .07 | 2.45 | .00 |