Physical Therapy and Exercise
Exercise is considered to be ineffective for acute LBP, but may be effective for patients with subacute LBP or cLBP [
32]. Physical therapy for cLBP has been divided into four major classification systems that attempt to find the most appropriate therapeutic course for a given subpopulation of patients. Approaches are mechanical (based on directional preferences) [
33], a movement-systems approach, a mechanistic method [
34], and treatment-based classification (TBC). Strength-building exercises, which aim at building up support of the spine, may be recommended; an added benefit of such exercises is that they may improve posture and endurance.
The McKenzie method [
35] involves repeated movements or sustained positions which are accompanied by manual overpressure or mobilization by a trained therapist. McKenzie therapists undergo specific training at the McKenzie Institute International [
36]. In a head-to-head clinical trial of 260 LBP patients (at least 8 weeks of symptoms, 85% had > 12 weeks), at 2 and 8 months, intensive strength training and McKenzie patients had similar results in terms of pain relief and disability. McKenzie patients showed a significant reduction in pain at 2 months (
p = 0.01) but no significant difference at 8 months [
37]. A new treatment model combines McKenzie exercises with muscular energy techniques [
38].
Directional preference exercises provide to LBP patients rapid and durable pain relief after performing repeated lumbar flexions, extensions, side glide exercises, and rotations. These exercises can be performed in the patient’s preferred direction or in the opposite direction. In a study of 312 acute, subacute, and chronic LBP patients, 74% responded to directional preference exercises which had significantly greater improvements in all outcomes and a three-fold decrease in medication use [
39].
A regular program of physical exercise has been shown to reduce pain, reduce disability, and improve balance in cLBP patients [
40,
41]. Physical activity has other positive benefits as well [
42]. The challenge with cLBP is to identify the most appropriate types of physical exercise. Pilates exercises are based on the principles of concentration, control, flow of movement, and breathing technique [
43] and is sometimes recommended for patients with cLBP. A systematic review and other studies reported that Pilates was more effective at reducing pain and disability in people with cLBP compared to standard care (usual care or an educational booklet about back pain) on a short- or medium-term basis [
44‐
46]. For long-term benefits, Pilates was similar to cycling or McKenzie exercises [
44].
Aerobic exercise has established benefits for overall well-being, fitness, and cardiovascular health [
47] but its role for the treatment of patients with cLBP is unclear. In a study of 46 patients with cLBP, patients were randomized and asked to perform deep-water running three times a week for 15 weeks. Deep-water running involves “running” in shoulder-high water at the individual’s aerobic threshold. All patients received physical therapy (individualized land exercises), manual therapy, back care, patient education, and lifestyle advice but the active group received three weekly 20-min sessions of deep-water running. Both groups of patients had significant improvements versus baseline but the patients who added deep-water running had significantly reduced pain intensity compared to the patients who did not perform the deep-water running [
48].
Stabilization exercises, which aim to increase core body strength, enhance neuromuscular control, and promote endurance, were shown in an unblinded clinical study to provide more functional improvements to people with cLBP than yoga, but yoga provided better pain control [
49]. A novel program combining traditional yoga with stabilization exercises has been described in the literature; this program was created to decrease back pain, restore spinal function, and strengthen the musculature that supports and stabilizes the spine [
50].
Qigong exercise is a traditional Chinese practice that combines specific slow flowing body movements with meditation with the goal of consolidating attention, regulating breathing, and transitioning smoothly from static to dynamic postures [
51]. Although not widely practiced in the US, it has been evaluated in China in 72 office workers with chronic nonspecific LBP and it was found to significantly reduce pain levels and functional disability compared to placebo (no intervention). Participants in the Qigong group practiced every day at work for 1 h and also at home for 6 weeks [
52]. Tai Chi, a Chinese mindfulness technique involving slow, controlled movements with regulated breathing has also been found in a systematic review to reduce symptoms of cLBP [
53,
54].
Yoga was evaluated in a systematic review and meta-analysis in 12 studies (
n = 1080 cLBP patients) and it was reported with “low to moderate certainty” that yoga improved back function at three and 6 months compared to no exercise. Yoga may also reduce pain, but improvement is modest [
55].
Badaunjin is an exercise system from China which has been studied for the treatment of cLBP. Badaunjin is composed of eight discreet, smooth, easy-to-execute movements that are performed in a specific, mindful sequence with careful attention to breathing [
56]. A systematic review of nine studies (
n = 519 cLBP patients) suggested Badaunjin was effective in treating cLBP in terms of reducing pain and disability and also found it may work well in combination with other therapies [
56].
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can be effective in reducing pain, improving daily function, and improving quality of life in patients with cLBP. Unlike exercise programs or physical therapy, CBT addresses the psychosocial contributors to cLBP. A recent series of structured interviews in a prospective extended cohort (
n = 277, 85% response rate) found positive 1-year response rates that were maintained at 5 years of follow-up [
58]. A postmarketing study found positive responses to an intensive 2-week course of CBT in cLBP patients were durable at 2 years and patients reported less consumption of analgesics [
59].
Like other interventions, compliance can be an issue with CBT. In a study of 290 patients with cLBP from a single Veterans Health Affairs (VHA) center, 54% of patients declined to participate in CBT when it was offered to them. Regression analysis showed that individuals prescribed an opioid were more likely to decline CBT than those not prescribed opioids. This particular study suggests that patients administered an opioid analgesic were less engaged in their treatment [
60]. Of those who enrolled in CBT, retention rates were good.
Combining CBT with physical therapy interventions was shown in a systematic review to reduce pain and disability in patients with cLBP and to improve their quality of life, but CBT conferred no additional benefit over physical therapy alone in reducing depression associated with cLBP [
61]. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, combined forms of CBT plus progressive relaxation techniques can be more effective than placebo (waiting list control) for short-term pain relief in cLBP but it is not clear if these results are durable [
62,
63]. A meta-review and analysis (40 studies, 6858 patients with cLBP of > 1 year who had often failed other treatments) found biopsychosocial rehabilitation was more effective than usual care in terms of controlling pain and decreasing disability [
64].
Bracing
In a study of 20 adult women with back pain secondary to idiopathic scoliosis, it was found that back braces (worn at least 2 h a day) resulted in significant improvements in worst pain, back pain, and leg pain (7.15–5.85; 6.55–5.25; 5.65–3.55, respectively,
p < 0.05). No changes in quality of life were reported [
68]. Results from a retrospective observational study of 174 patients with cLBP associated with Modic type 1 changes wore a rigid lumbar brace for 3 months; the brace was withdrawn gradually at 3 months. Pain improved by at least 30% in 3 months in 79% of the braced patients and 2 months after the brace was withdrawn, pain recurred in 65% [
69]. While scoliosis patients may be indicated for bracing, it is not established if bracing is beneficial in patients with mechanical cLBP or other such painful conditions [
70].
Traction
Mechanical and manual traction are old forms of rehabilitation therapy for LBP that have been falling out of favor as new treatments emerge. In a systematic review and meta-analysis (32 randomized controlled trials,
n = 2762) traction was found to have little effect on pain intensity, function, global improvement, or ability to return to work for patients with LBP. Adverse events for traction can include worsened pain, neurological symptoms, and subsequent surgery [
76]. It has been theorized that one reason for the relatively poor clinical results from traction reported in the literature may be due to the fact that there are multiple different types of traction and parameter settings and it is used in a range of patients with back problems [
3]. Nevertheless, traction is not frequently considered as a treatment for cLBP today.