nach oben

Current Pulmonology Reports

Erschienen in:

16.10.2018 | Interstitial Lung Disease (A. Hajari Case, Section Editor)

Risk Factors for the Development of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: a Review

verfasst von: Tanzira Zaman, Joyce S. Lee

Erschienen in: Current Pulmonology Reports | Ausgabe 4/2018

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an invariably progressive disease. Current treatment options simply slow disease progression, and better therapeutic options are needed. We aimed to review an emerging literature on risk factors associated with the development of IPF.

Recent Findings

There is increasing data to support the role of intrinsic risk factors (e.g., genetics, aging, sex, lung microbiome), comorbidities (e.g., gastroesophageal reflux, obstructive sleep apnea, diabetes mellitus, herpes virus infection), and extrinsic risk factors (e.g., cigarette smoking, environmental exposures, air pollution) in IPF development. These risk factors may independently increase susceptibility for IPF or act in a synergistic fashion to contribute to increased risk for disease development.

Summary

Various risk factors have been identified in IPF development that fit within the current paradigm of disease pathogenesis. Further investigation of these risk factors may help us better understand the pathophysiology of IPF and may guide future therapeutic interventions.

Lederer DJ, Martinez FJ. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(19):1811–23.PubMed

Fell CD. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: phenotypes and comorbidities. Clin Chest Med. 2012;33(1):51–7.PubMed

King TE Jr, Pardo A, Selman M. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Lancet. 2011;378(9807):1949–61.

• King TE Jr, Bradford WZ, Castro-Bernardini S, Fagan EA, Glaspole I, Glassberg MK, et al. A phase 3 trial of pirfenidone in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(22):2083–92 This study led to the approval of the first pharmacologic therapy in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. PubMed

Noble PW, Albera C, Bradford WZ, Costabel U, Glassberg MK, Kardatzke D, et al. Pirfenidone in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (CAPACITY): two randomised trials. Lancet. 2011;377(9779):1760–9.PubMed

• Richeldi L, du Bois RM, Raghu G, Azuma A, Brown KK, Costabel U, et al. Efficacy and safety of nintedanib in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(22):2071–82 This study led to the approval of the first pharmacologic therapy in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. PubMed

Kropski JA, Blackwell TS, Loyd JE. The genetic basis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J. 2015;45(6):1717–27.PubMedPubMedCentral

Kaur A, Mathai SK, Schwartz DA. Genetics in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis pathogenesis, prognosis, and treatment. Front Med (Lausanne). 2017;4:154.

Whitsett JA, Wert SE, Weaver TE. Alveolar surfactant homeostasis and the pathogenesis of pulmonary disease. Annu Rev Med. 2010;61:105–19.PubMedPubMedCentral

10.

Mulugeta S, Nguyen V, Russo SJ, Muniswamy M, Beers MF. A surfactant protein C precursor protein BRICHOS domain mutation causes endoplasmic reticulum stress, proteasome dysfunction, and caspase 3 activation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2005;32(6):521–30.PubMedPubMedCentral

11.

van Moorsel CH, Hoffman TW, van Batenburg AA, Klay D, van der Vis JJ, Grutters JC. Understanding idiopathic interstitial pneumonia: a gene-based review of stressed lungs. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:304186.PubMedPubMedCentral

12.

Nathan N, Giraud V, Picard C, Nunes H, Dastot-Le Moal F, Copin B, et al. Germline SFTPA1 mutation in familial idiopathic interstitial pneumonia and lung cancer. Hum Mol Genet. 2016;25(8):1457–67.PubMed

13.

Wang Y, Kuan PJ, Xing C, Cronkhite JT, Torres F, Rosenblatt RL, et al. Genetic defects in surfactant protein A2 are associated with pulmonary fibrosis and lung cancer. Am J Hum Genet. 2009;84(1):52–9.PubMedPubMedCentral

14.

Yamano G, Funahashi H, Kawanami O, Zhao LX, Ban N, Uchida Y, et al. ABCA3 is a lamellar body membrane protein in human lung alveolar type II cells. FEBS Lett. 2001;508(2):221–5.PubMed

15.

Weichert N, Kaltenborn E, Hector A, Woischnik M, Schams A, Holzinger A, et al. Some ABCA3 mutations elevate ER stress and initiate apoptosis of lung epithelial cells. Respir Res. 2011;12:4.PubMedPubMedCentral

16.

Fingerlin TE, Murphy E, Zhang W, Peljto AL, Brown KK, Steele MP, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies multiple susceptibility loci for pulmonary fibrosis. Nat Genet. 2013;45(6):613–20.PubMedPubMedCentral

17.

Stuart BD, Lee JS, Kozlitina J, Noth I, Devine MS, Glazer CS, et al. Effect of telomere length on survival in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: an observational cohort study with independent validation. Lancet Respir Med. 2014;2(7):557–65.PubMedPubMedCentral

18.

Alder JK, Chen JJ, Lancaster L, Danoff S, Su SC, Cogan JD, et al. Short telomeres are a risk factor for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(35):13051–6.PubMedPubMedCentral

19.

Armanios MY, Chen JJ, Cogan JD, Alder JK, Ingersoll RG, Markin C, et al. Telomerase mutations in families with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(13):1317–26.PubMed

20.

Cronkhite JT, Xing C, Raghu G, Chin KM, Torres F, Rosenblatt RL, et al. Telomere shortening in familial and sporadic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178(7):729–37.PubMedPubMedCentral

21.

Kim SH, Kaminker P, Campisi J. TIN2, a new regulator of telomere length in human cells. Nat Genet. 1999;23(4):405–12.PubMedPubMedCentral

22.

O'Dwyer DN, Armstrong ME, Trujillo G, Cooke G, Keane MP, Fallon PG, et al. The Toll-like receptor 3 L412F polymorphism and disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;188(12):1442–50.PubMed

23.

Stuart BD, Choi J, Zaidi S, Xing C, Holohan B, Chen R, et al. Exome sequencing links mutations in PARN and RTEL1 with familial pulmonary fibrosis and telomere shortening. Nat Genet. 2015;47(5):512–7.PubMedPubMedCentral

24.

Tummala H, Walne A, Collopy L, Cardoso S, de la Fuente J, Lawson S, et al. Poly(A)-specific ribonuclease deficiency impacts telomere biology and causes dyskeratosis congenita. J Clin Invest. 2015;125(5):2151–60.PubMedPubMedCentral

25.

Vannier JB, Sarek G, Boulton SJ. RTEL1: functions of a disease-associated helicase. Trends Cell Biol. 2014;24(7):416–25.PubMed

26.

Cogan JD, Kropski JA, Zhao M, Mitchell DB, Rives L, Markin C, et al. Rare variants in RTEL1 are associated with familial interstitial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;191(6):646–55.PubMedPubMedCentral

27.

Noth I, Zhang Y, Ma SF, Flores C, Barber M, Huang Y, et al. Genetic variants associated with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis susceptibility and mortality: a genome-wide association study. Lancet Respir Med. 2013;1(4):309–17.PubMedPubMedCentral

28.

Seibold MA, Wise AL, Speer MC, Steele MP, Brown KK, Loyd JE, et al. A common MUC5B promoter polymorphism and pulmonary fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(16):1503–12.PubMedPubMedCentral

29.

Peljto AL, Zhang Y, Fingerlin TE, Ma SF, Garcia JG, Richards TJ, et al. Association between the MUC5B promoter polymorphism and survival in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. JAMA. 2013;309(21):2232–9.PubMedPubMedCentral

30.

Fingerlin TE, Zhang W, Yang IV, Ainsworth HC, Russell PH, Blumhagen RZ, et al. Genome-wide imputation study identifies novel HLA locus for pulmonary fibrosis and potential role for auto-immunity in fibrotic idiopathic interstitial pneumonia. BMC Genet. 2016;17(1):74.PubMedPubMedCentral

31.

Korthagen NM, van Moorsel CH, Kazemier KM, Ruven HJ, Grutters JC. IL1RN genetic variations and risk of IPF: a meta-analysis and mRNA expression study. Immunogenetics. 2012;64(5):371–7.PubMedPubMedCentral

32.

Ahn MH, Park BL, Lee SH, Park SW, Park JS, Kim DJ, et al. A promoter SNP rs4073T>A in the common allele of the interleukin 8 gene is associated with the development of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis via the IL-8 protein enhancing mode. Respir Res. 2011;12:73.PubMedPubMedCentral

33.

Richards TJ, Kaminski N, Baribaud F, Flavin S, Brodmerkel C, Horowitz D, et al. Peripheral blood proteins predict mortality in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;185(1):67–76.PubMedPubMedCentral

34.

Raghu G, Weycker D, Edelsberg J, Bradford WZ, Oster G. Incidence and prevalence of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;174(7):810–6.

35.

Utz JP, Ryu JH, Myers JL, Michels VV. Usual interstitial pneumonia complicating dyskeratosis congenita. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005;80(6):817–21.PubMed

36.

Wolters PJ, Collard HR, Jones KD. Pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Annu Rev Pathol. 2014;9:157–79.PubMed

37.

Snetselaar R, van Batenburg AA, van Oosterhout MFM, Kazemier KM, Roothaan SM, Peeters T, et al. Short telomere length in IPF lung associates with fibrotic lesions and predicts survival. PLoS One. 2017;12(12):e0189467.PubMedPubMedCentral

38.

Alvarez D, Cardenes N, Sellares J, Bueno M, Corey C, Hanumanthu VS, et al. IPF lung fibroblasts have a senescent phenotype. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2017;313(6):L1164–73.PubMed

39.

Vassilakis DA, Sourvinos G, Spandidos DA, Siafakas NM, Bouros D. Frequent genetic alterations at the microsatellite level in cytologic sputum samples of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(3 Pt 1):1115–9.PubMed

40.

Leung J, Cho Y, Lockey RF, Kolliputi N. The role of aging in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Lung. 2015;193(4):605–10.PubMed

41.

Jo HE, Glaspole I, Grainge C, Goh N, Hopkins PM, Moodley Y, et al. Baseline characteristics of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: analysis from the Australian Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis Registry. Eur Respir J. 2017;49(2).

42.

Baumgartner KB, Samet JM, Stidley CA, Colby TV, Waldron JA. Cigarette smoking: a risk factor for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155(1):242–8.PubMed

43.

Ekstrom M, Gustafson T, Boman K, Nilsson K, Tornling G, Murgia N, et al. Effects of smoking, gender and occupational exposure on the risk of severe pulmonary fibrosis: a population-based case-control study. BMJ Open. 2014;4(1):e004018.PubMedPubMedCentral

44.

Gustafson T, Dahlman-Hoglund A, Nilsson K, Strom K, Tornling G, Toren K. Occupational exposure and severe pulmonary fibrosis. Respir Med. 2007;101(10):2207–12.PubMed

45.

Redente EF, Jacobsen KM, Solomon JJ, Lara AR, Faubel S, Keith RC, et al. Age and sex dimorphisms contribute to the severity of bleomycin-induced lung injury and fibrosis. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2011;301(4):L510–8.PubMedPubMedCentral

46.

Voltz JW, Card JW, Carey MA, Degraff LM, Ferguson CD, Flake GP, et al. Male sex hormones exacerbate lung function impairment after bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2008;39(1):45–52.PubMedPubMedCentral

47.

Lekgabe ED, Royce SG, Hewitson TD, Tang ML, Zhao C, Moore XL, et al. The effects of relaxin and estrogen deficiency on collagen deposition and hypertrophy of nonreproductive organs. Endocrinology. 2006;147(12):5575–83.PubMed

48.

Molyneaux PL, Cox MJ, Willis-Owen SA, Mallia P, Russell KE, Russell AM, et al. The role of bacteria in the pathogenesis and progression of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190(8):906–13.PubMedPubMedCentral

49.

Han MK, Zhou Y, Murray S, Tayob N, Noth I, Lama VN, et al. Lung microbiome and disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: an analysis of the COMET study. Lancet Respir Med. 2014;2(7):548–56.PubMedPubMedCentral

50.

Shulgina L, Cahn AP, Chilvers ER, Parfrey H, Clark AB, Wilson EC, et al. Treating idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis with the addition of co-trimoxazole: a randomised controlled trial. Thorax. 2013;68(2):155–62.PubMed

51.

Lee JS, Collard HR, Raghu G, Sweet MP, Hays SR, Campos GM, et al. Does chronic microaspiration cause idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis? Am J Med. 2010;123(4):304–11.PubMedPubMedCentral

52.

Noth I, Zangan SM, Soares RV, Forsythe A, Demchuk C, Takahashi SM, et al. Prevalence of hiatal hernia by blinded multidetector CT in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J. 2012;39(2):344–51.PubMed

53.

Raghu G, Freudenberger TD, Yang S, Curtis JR, Spada C, Hayes J, et al. High prevalence of abnormal acid gastro-oesophageal reflux in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J. 2006;27(1):136–42.PubMed

54.

Lee JS, Ryu JH, Elicker BM, Lydell CP, Jones KD, Wolters PJ, et al. Gastroesophageal reflux therapy is associated with longer survival in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;184(12):1390–4.PubMedPubMedCentral

55.

Lee JS, Collard HR, Anstrom KJ, Martinez FJ, Noth I, Roberts RS, et al. Anti-acid treatment and disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: an analysis of data from three randomised controlled trials. Lancet Respir Med. 2013;1(5):369–76.PubMedPubMedCentral

56.

Ghebremariam YT, Cooke JP, Gerhart W, Griego C, Brower JB, Doyle-Eisele M, et al. Pleiotropic effect of the proton pump inhibitor esomeprazole leading to suppression of lung inflammation and fibrosis. J Transl Med. 2015;13:249.PubMedPubMedCentral

57.

Kreuter M, Wuyts W, Renzoni E, Koschel D, Maher TM, Kolb M, et al. Antacid therapy and disease outcomes in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a pooled analysis. Lancet Respir Med. 2016;4(5):381–9.PubMed

58.

Raghu G, Pellegrini CA, Yow E, Flaherty KR, Meyer K, Noth I, et al. Laparoscopic anti-reflux surgery for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (WRAP-IPF): a multicentre, randomised, controlled phase 2 trial. Lancet Resp Med. 2018;6(9):707–14.

59.

Lancaster LH, Mason WR, Parnell JA, Rice TW, Loyd JE, Milstone AP, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea is common in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest. 2009;136(3):772–8.PubMedPubMedCentral

60.

Mermigkis C, Stagaki E, Tryfon S, Schiza S, Amfilochiou A, Polychronopoulos V, et al. How common is sleep-disordered breathing in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis? Sleep Breath. 2010;14(4):387–90.PubMed

61.

Pihtili A, Bingol Z, Kiyan E, Cuhadaroglu C, Issever H, Gulbaran Z. Obstructive sleep apnea is common in patients with interstitial lung disease. Sleep Breath. 2013;17(4):1281–8.PubMed

62.

Gille T, Didier M, Boubaya M, Moya L, Sutton A, Carton Z, et al. Obstructive sleep apnoea and related comorbidities in incident idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J. 2017;49(6).PubMed

63.

Dempsey JA, Veasey SC, Morgan BJ, O'Donnell CP. Pathophysiology of sleep apnea. Physiol Rev. 2010;90(1):47–112.PubMedPubMedCentral

64.

Leslie KO. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis may be a disease of recurrent, tractional injury to the periphery of the aging lung: a unifying hypothesis regarding etiology and pathogenesis. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2012;136(6):591–600.PubMed

65.

Kim JS, Podolanczuk AJ, Borker P, Kawut SM, Raghu G, Kaufman JD, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and subclinical interstitial lung disease in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017;14(12):1786–95.PubMed

66.

Yokoyama A, Kondo K, Nakajima M, Matsushima T, Takahashi T, Nishimura M, et al. Prognostic value of circulating KL-6 in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Respirology. 2006;11(2):164–8.PubMed

67.

Lederer DJ, Jelic S, Basner RC, Ishizaka A, Bhattacharya J. Circulating KL-6, a biomarker of lung injury, in obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J. 2009;33(4):793–6.PubMedPubMedCentral

68.

Klein OL, Krishnan JA, Glick S, Smith LJ. Systematic review of the association between lung function and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. 2010;27(9):977–87.PubMed

69.

Enomoto T, Usuki J, Azuma A, Nakagawa T, Kudoh S. Diabetes mellitus may increase risk for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest. 2003;123(6):2007–11.PubMed

70.

Garcia-Sancho Figueroa MC, Carrillo G, Perez-Padilla R, Fernandez-Plata MR, Buendia-Roldan I, Vargas MH, et al. Risk factors for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in a Mexican population. A case-control study. Respir Med. 2010;104(2):305–9.PubMed

71.

Ehrlich SF, Quesenberry CP Jr, Van Den Eeden SK, Shan J, Ferrara A. Patients diagnosed with diabetes are at increased risk for asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary fibrosis, and pneumonia but not lung cancer. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(1):55–60.PubMed

72.

Yang J, Xue Q, Miao L, Cai L. Pulmonary fibrosis: a possible diabetic complication. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2011;27(4):311–7.PubMed

73.

Sato N, Takasaka N, Yoshida M, Tsubouchi K, Minagawa S, Araya J, et al. Metformin attenuates lung fibrosis development via NOX4 suppression. Respir Res. 2016;17(1):107.PubMedPubMedCentral

74.

Rangarajan S, Bone NB, Zmijewska AA, Jiang S, Park DW, Bernard K, et al. Metformin reverses established lung fibrosis in a bleomycin model. Nat Med. 2018;24(8):1121–7.PubMed

75.

Tang YW, Johnson JE, Browning PJ, Cruz-Gervis RA, Davis A, Graham BS, et al. Herpesvirus DNA is consistently detected in lungs of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(6):2633–40.PubMedPubMedCentral

76.

Stewart JP, Egan JJ, Ross AJ, Kelly BG, Lok SS, Hasleton PS, et al. The detection of Epstein-Barr virus DNA in lung tissue from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159(4 Pt 1):1336–41.PubMed

77.

Yonemaru M, Kasuga I, Kusumoto H, Kunisawa A, Kiyokawa H, Kuwabara S, et al. Elevation of antibodies to cytomegalovirus and other herpes viruses in pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J. 1997;10(9):2040–5.PubMed

78.

Sides MD, Klingsberg RC, Shan B, Gordon KA, Nguyen HT, Lin Z, et al. The Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 and transforming growth factor--beta1 synergistically induce epithelial--mesenchymal transition in lung epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2011;44(6):852–62.PubMed

79.

Malizia AP, Keating DT, Smith SM, Walls D, Doran PP, Egan JJ. Alveolar epithelial cell injury with Epstein-Barr virus upregulates TGFbeta1 expression. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2008;295(3):L451–60.PubMed

80.

Oh CK, Murray LA, Molfino NA. Smoking and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Pulm Med. 2012;2012:808260.PubMedPubMedCentral

81.

Steele MP, Speer MC, Loyd JE, Brown KK, Herron A, Slifer SH, et al. Clinical and pathologic features of familial interstitial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(9):1146–52.PubMedPubMedCentral

82.

Checa M, Hagood JS, Velazquez-Cruz R, Ruiz V, Garcia-De-Alba C, Rangel-Escareno C, et al. Cigarette smoke enhances the expression of profibrotic molecules in alveolar epithelial cells. PLoS One. 2016;11(3):e0150383.PubMedPubMedCentral

83.

Jensen K, Nizamutdinov D, Guerrier M, Afroze S, Dostal D, Glaser S. General mechanisms of nicotine-induced fibrogenesis. FASEB J. 2012;26(12):4778–87.PubMedPubMedCentral

84.

Huzen J, Wong LS, van Veldhuisen DJ, Samani NJ, Zwinderman AH, Codd V, et al. Telomere length loss due to smoking and metabolic traits. J Intern Med. 2014;275(2):155–63.PubMed

85.

Jorgensen E, Stinson A, Shan L, Yang J, Gietl D, Albino AP. Cigarette smoke induces endoplasmic reticulum stress and the unfolded protein response in normal and malignant human lung cells. BMC Cancer. 2008;8:229.PubMedPubMedCentral

86.

Tanjore H, Blackwell TS, Lawson WE. Emerging evidence for endoplasmic reticulum stress in the pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2012;302(8):L721–9.PubMedPubMedCentral

87.

Camelo A, Dunmore R, Sleeman MA, Clarke DL. The epithelium in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: breaking the barrier. Front Pharmacol. 2014;4:173.PubMedPubMedCentral

88.

Taskar VS, Coultas DB. Is idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis an environmental disease? Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2006;3(4):293–8.PubMed

89.

Hubbard R, Cooper M, Antoniak M, Venn A, Khan S, Johnston I, et al. Risk of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis in metal workers. Lancet. 2000;355(9202):466–7.PubMed

90.

Iwai K, Mori T, Yamada N, Yamaguchi M, Hosoda Y. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Epidemiologic approaches to occupational exposure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150(3):670–5.PubMed

91.

Conti S, Harari S, Caminati A, Zanobetti A, Schwartz JD, Bertazzi PA, et al. The association between air pollution and the incidence of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in Northern Italy. Eur Respir J. 2018;51(1).PubMed

Titel: Risk Factors for the Development of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: a Review
verfasst von: Tanzira Zaman
Joyce S. Lee
Publikationsdatum: 16.10.2018
Verlag: Springer US
Erschienen in: Current Pulmonology Reports / Ausgabe 4/2018
Elektronische ISSN: 2199-2428
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13665-018-0210-7

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

^{Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag}

Kostenlos registrieren

Neu im Fachgebiet Innere Medizin

24.04.2024 | DGIM 2024 | Kongressbericht | Nachrichten

Update Innere Medizin

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen

Springer Medizin

Risk Factors for the Development of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: a Review

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Recent Findings

Summary

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Neu im Fachgebiet Innere Medizin

Metformin rückt in den Hintergrund

Myokarditis nach Infekt – richtig schwierig wird es bei Profisportlern

Thrombophiliescreening – Wenn, dann richtig und nur bei therapeutischer Konsequenz

Bei Senioren mit Prostatakarzinom auf Anämie achten!

Update Innere Medizin

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Recent Findings

Summary

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 4/2018

Nonpharmacological Therapies for Interstitial Lung Disease

The Use and Interpretation of Impedance Oscillometry in Pulmonary Disorders

Early Graft Dysfunction After Lung Transplantation

The Changing Paradigm of Treatment for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Intracranial Metastases

The Diagnostic Approach to Interstitial Lung Disease

Pneumonitis in Patients with Lung Cancer Following Treatment: the Effects of Chemotherapy, Immunotherapy, and Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Neu im Fachgebiet Innere Medizin

Metformin rückt in den Hintergrund

Myokarditis nach Infekt – richtig schwierig wird es bei Profisportlern

Thrombophiliescreening – Wenn, dann richtig und nur bei therapeutischer Konsequenz

Bei Senioren mit Prostatakarzinom auf Anämie achten!

Update Innere Medizin