Background
Methods
Literature review
Database | Search Terms | Results |
---|---|---|
EBSCO (Academic Search Premiere) | School (abstract) AND (pandemic or influenza) (abstract) | 998 |
Education abstracts | (school) and (pandemic or influenza) | 214 |
Eric | (school) and (pandemic or influenza) | 143 |
Google Scholar | (school and (influenza or pandemic)) | 200a |
JSTOR | ((ab:(school) AND ab:(influenza or pandemic)) AND ((social distancing or practices or interventions or strategies or measures))) | 66 |
Psych INFO | (schools and pandemic or influenza and (social distancing or practices or measures or interventions or strategies) | 106 |
PubMed | (schools[Title/Abstract]) AND ((social distancing)[Title/Abstract] OR influenza[Title/Abstract] OR pandemic[Title/Abstract]) | 480 |
Scopus | School and (influenza or pandemic) (AB) | 610 |
Social Sciences Abstracts | school and (pandemic or influenza) (Title/Abstract) | 104 |
Sociological Abstracts | school and (pandemic or influenza) (Title/Abstract) | 40 |
Web of Science | TITLE: (school) AND TOPIC: ((pandemic or influenza) and (practice or strategy or measure or intervention or social distancing)) | 215 |
WorldCat | school and (influenza or pandemic) and (strategies or measures or interventions or practices or social distancing) | 891 |
State government planning document review
Results
Literature review
Article | Article Type | Location | School Practice(s) |
---|---|---|---|
Agent-Based Simulation Model | |||
Ridenhour [20] | Peer-reviewed | N/A | Hall restriction: Defined walking area between classrooms, lunchroom, and schoolyard (e.g., right-hand side of any hall); classroom restriction: Must remain seated while in class; schoolyard restriction: Must stay in a randomly specified schoolyard area (may or may not be classroom-specific); lunchroom restriction: Must only eat with classmates; different schedules/each classroom follows one of three schedules (current schedule, a shift of 45 min, a shift of 90 min) |
Adalja [31] | Peer-reviewed | N/A | Segregating small clusters of children to different parts of the rooma; lunch in classrooms/no congregating for luncha; cancel gym classa |
Fumanelli [32] | Peer-reviewed | N/A | Class or grade closure (in contrast to full school closure)a |
Gemmetto [33] | Peer-reviewed | N/A | Class closure; grade closure |
Lofgren [34] | Peer-reviewed | N/A | Closure of playground/common areas |
Cooley [35] | Peer-reviewed | N/A | Shorter school week: 4 days instead of 5 |
Commentary/ Newsletter/Magazine Article | |||
McGiboney [13] | Commentary | DeKalb County, Georgia | Cancel fieldtrips; cancel afterschool activities; distance learning (e.g., cable channel lesson plans, study packets, online lessons) |
Education Digest [36] | Newsletter/ Magazine | National | Move desks apart; cancel classes that bring together children from different classrooms |
Ash [14] | Newsletter/ Magazine | National | Distance learning |
Surveys of Practices during 2009 H1N1 Pandemic | |||
Miller [16] | Peer-reviewed | Pennsylvania | Cancel activities |
Nasrullah [17] | Peer-reviewed | Georgia | Cancel or postpone activities |
Rebmann [18] | Peer-reviewed | 26 states | Discourage face-to-face meetings in schools |
Shi [15] | Peer-reviewed | Michigan | Rearrange classroom to keep students further apart Cancel or postpone school activities such as field trips, school performances, practices, and games |
Dooyema [19] | Peer-reviewed | Michigan | Move desks apart; cancel or postpone fieldtrips, performances, practices, after-school programs; divide classes into smaller groups; hold class outdoors (0%); move classes into larger spaces; crowd-reducing methods of transportation (e.g., no busing) |
Epidemiologic Study | |||
Stehlé [37] | Peer-reviewed | Francea,b | Class closurea, altered schedules to prevent mixinga |
Sugisaki [38] | Peer-reviewed | Japanc | Grade closure; class closure; later start to school day; cancel activities |
Category | Examples | # (%) (n = 16 articles) |
---|---|---|
Cancelling or postponing after school activities | Cancel performances, sports practices, or games | 6 (38%) |
Increasing space among students during in-person instruction | Move class outdoors; re-arrange desks to increase space; divide classes into smaller groups; require that students remain seated while in class | 5 (31%) |
Canceling classes or activities that occur within the school day with a high rate of mixing/contact | Cancel physical education class; cancel field trips; cancel choir | 5 (31%) |
Partial closure | Closure of one class; closure of one grade | 4 (25%) |
Reduced schedule | Shorter school week; shorter school day; students come on alternating days | 3 (19%) |
Suspending use of common areas | Lunch in class rather than in lunch room; no recess | 2 (13%) |
Segregating students within common areas | Require that students only eat with classmates in lunchroom; require that students stay in assigned section of school yard | 1 (6%) |
Reducing the load on common areas through altered scheduling | Let classes out at different times so fewer students are in the hall at any one time | 1 (6%) |
Implementing standard workplace social distancing measures for teachers and other staff | Reduce face to face meetings; cancel staff meetings | 1 (6%) |
Reducing mixing during transport | Suspend buses; discourage use of public transportation | 1 (6%) |
Article | Type of practice | Impact Summary |
---|---|---|
Sugisaki [38] | Class closure | Two-day class closure carried out day after 10% absenteeism rate (compared to no class closure or two-day or three-day closures carried out ≥2 days after a 10% absentee rate) is effective for mitigating influenza outbreaks in elementary school; school actions should be conducted at the class level as a basic strategy. |
Lofgren [34] | Suspending use of common areas | Closing the playground and other common areas when 5% of students were symptomatic (compared to requiring symptomatic students to leave school) significantly reduced the total number of infected students. |
Gemetto [33] | Class and grade closure | While the closure of one class yields a smaller mitigation effect than the closure of the whole elementary school, the closure of the corresponding grade (two classes) leads to a reduction of large outbreak probability and a reduction of epidemic size that are similar to those obtained by closing the entire elementary school. |
Fumanelli [32] | Class and grade closure | Reactive gradual (e.g., starting from class-by-class), reactive school-by-school, and county-wide school closure gave comparable outcomes in terms of infection attack rate reduction, peak incidence reduction or peak delay, while national closure of all schools of the country at the same time was not able to reach the same levels of mitigation. |
Cooley [35] | Reduced schedule: 3 day weekend | Using a 3-day weekend as an intervention strategy (compared to a 2-day weekend) could be effective at reducing the peak attack rate for mild epidemics similar in severity to the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. |
Ridenhour [20] | Classroom restriction, hall restriction, schoolyard restriction, lunchroom restriction, different classroom schedules | Classroom restrictions were the best single intervention at lower infection probabilities. At higher transmission rates, employing staggered classroom schedules is the best single intervention. |
State government planning document review
State | Type of plan | Author | Year | Address hygiene | Address school closure | Address distance learning | Listed School Practices to Promote Social Distancing |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AL [39] | Pandemic Influenza | AL Department of Education | 2014 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Cancel all extra-curricular activities. 2) Limit or discontinue all meetings, gatherings, field trips, extracurricular activities, etc., until county health department lifts pandemic conditions. 3) Limit or discontinue travel within the school district. 4) Suspend all transportation and work at the bus shop. 5) Limit or discontinue access to vendors and visitors from outside the school district. |
AK [40] | Infectious Disease | AK Department of Health and Social Services | 2013 | Yes | No | No | None listed |
AZ [41] | Pandemic Influenza | AZ Department of Education | 2009 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Incorporate flexible work hours and schedules while also utilizing employee spacing techniques to reduce crowding and close proximity (e.g., staggered shifts, telecommuting, teleconference meetings, separate office spaces). |
AR [42] | Pandemic Influenza | AR Department of Health | 2014 | Yes | Yes | No | 1) Snow days: simultaneous closure of offices, schools, and other non-essential community activities for a specified period of time. |
CA [43] | Pandemic Influenza | CA Department of Education | 2014 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Alternate scheduling 2) Before- and after- school programs closures |
CO [44] | Pandemic Influenza | CO Department of Public Health | 2009 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
CT [45] | Clinical Procedure Guidelines for School Nurses | CT Department of Education | 2012 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
DC [46] | General Emergency | DC Department of Education | 2009 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Staggered school times 2) Canceling sports events and other mass gatherings 3) Spacing students’ desks three feet apart in small pods or clusters. 4) Discouraging prolonged congregation in hallways, lunch rooms, etc. 5) Staggering bus routes so there are fewer people on each route. 6) Limiting group activities and interaction between classes. 7) Canceling gym class, choir, or other school activities that place individuals in close proximity. |
DE [47] | General Emergency | DE Department of Education | 2010 | Yes | Yes | No | None listed |
FL | NG* | ||||||
GA [48] | Pandemic Influenza | GA Department of Education | 2015 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Students’ desks be spaced three (3) feet apart 2) Limit group activities and interaction between classes. 3) Cancel or modify gym class, choir or other school activities that place individuals in close proximity. 4) Gatherings of groups larger than normal class size should be cancelled and avoided (e.g. assemblies, recess). 5) Cancel all extra-curricular activities. 6) Prohibit congregation in hall ways and lunchrooms; if possible, serve box lunches in classrooms to avoid gathering of students in the cafeteria; 7) Stagger class changes to avoid large groups of students in the hallway 8) Stagger dismissal for the same reason; 9) Stagger bus routes to reduce the number of students on each bus. |
HI | NG* | ||||||
ID [49] | Pandemic Influenza | ID Department of Health and Welfare | 2006 | Yes | Yes | No | None listed |
IL [50] | Pandemic Influenza | IL Department of Public Health | 2006 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
IN [51] | Communicable Disease | IN Department of Health, Epidemiology Resource Center | 2015 | Yes | No | No | None listed |
IA [52] | General Emergency | IA Department of Public Health & Iowa Department of Education | 2012 | No | No | No | None listed |
KS | NG* | ||||||
KY | NG* | ||||||
LA [53] | Pandemic Influenza | LA Department of Health and Hospitals | 2011 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
ME | NG* | ||||||
MD [54] | Communicable Disease | MD Department of Education; MD Department of Health and Mental Hygiene; MD State School Health Council | 2002 | Yes | No | No | None listed |
MA | NG* | ||||||
MI [55] | Pandemic Influenza | MI Department of Community Health | 2006 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Cancel extracurricular activities 2) Modify work practices/schedules |
MN | NG* | ||||||
MS [56] | Pandemic Influenza | State of MS | 2013 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
MO [57] | Communicable Disease | MO Department of Health and Senior Services | 2011 | Yes | Yes | No | None listed |
MT [58] | Pandemic Influenza | MT Office of Public Instruction | 2007 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
NE [59] | General Emergency | NE Department of Health and Human Services | 2012 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
NV | NG* | ||||||
NH [60] | Pandemic Influenza | NH Department of Education, School Health consultant | 2008 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
NJ [61] | Pandemic Influenza | NJ Department of Health | 2015 | Yes | Yes | No | None listed |
NM [62] | Pandemic Influenza | NM Public Education Department and Department of Health | 2007 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
NY [63] | Pandemic Influenza | NY Department of Health | 2007 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Cancel any non-academic events (in the case of school closure) |
NC [64] | Pandemic Influenza | NC Department of Health and Human Services | UK | No | Yes | No | 1) Reduced school activity calendar |
ND | NG* | ||||||
OH [65] | Pandemic Influenza | OH Department of Education | 2009 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Cancel non-academic events |
OK [66] | General Emergency | OK Department of Health | UK | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Cancel non-academic events |
OR [67] | Pandemic Influenza | OR Department of Education | 2008 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
PA [68] | Pandemic Influenza | PA Department of Health | 2009 | Yes | Yes | No | None listed |
RI | NG* | ||||||
SC | NG* | ||||||
SD | NG* | ||||||
TN [69] | Pandemic Influenza | TN Department of Education and Department of Health | 2009 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Rotating teachers between classrooms while keeping the same group of students in one classroom 2) Canceling classes that bring students together from multiple classrooms 3) Holding classes outdoors 4) Postponing class trips 5) Discouraging use of school buses and public transit 6) Dividing classes into smaller groups, 7) Moving desks farther apart, and 8) Moving classes to larger spaces to allow more space between students |
TX [70] | Infectious Disease | TX Association of School Boards | 2014 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Non-essential travel for sports, other competitions, or field trips may be cancelled by a district superintendent or designee. |
UT [71] | Pandemic Influenza | UT Department of Health and Utah Office of Education | 2006 | Yes | Yes | No | 1) Spacing students’ desks three (3) feet apart, in small pods or clusters. 2) Discourage prolonged congregation in hallways, lunchrooms, etc. 3) Staggered school times 4) Staggered bus routes, so fewer people are on each route 5) Limit group activities and interaction between classes 6) Cancelling gym classes, choir, or other activities that place individuals in close proximity. |
VT [72] | Pandemic Influenza | VVVT Agency of Human Services | 2008 | No | Yes | Yes | None listed |
VA [73] | Pandemic Influenza | VA Department of Education | 2008 | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Move desks further apart 2) Maintain space between people when walking in the hallways, 3) other strategies to decrease large numbers of students intermingling such as suspending programs held in the school auditorium, canceling sporting events, and eating lunch in the cafeteria. 4) Rotate teachers instead of students 5) Suspension of activities, including sporting events, arts performances, and classes as determined by the school division superintendent in consultation with the local health department director and community emergency response team. 6) Gatherings of groups larger than normal class size may be limited or suspended during the school day (e.g. assemblies, recess). 7) Bus transportation for students, on and off campus, may be consolidated or suspended. In some instances, staggered bus routes should be considered to decrease the number of students on each bus. 8) Students’ desks be spaced three (3) feet apart. 9) Discourage prolonged congregation in hall ways and lunch rooms. 10) Stagger school schedules 11) Limit group activities and interaction between classes. 12) Cancel gym class, choir or other school activities that place individuals in close proximity 13) Modify school hours/days of operation (i.e., students with last names A-J come to school Monday and Wednesday, students with last names K-Z come to school on Tuesday and Thursday) 14) Stagger school hours (split days or weeks) |
WA [74] | Infectious Disease | Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction | 2014 | Yes | Yes | No | None listed |
WV [75] | Pandemic Influenza | WV Department of Education | UK | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1) Close non-essential agency functions; 2) Increase telecommuting, flex scheduling and other options; 3) Cancel all public assemblies or after school activities. |
WI [76] | Pandemic Influenza | WI Department of Public Instruction | 2009 | Yes | Yes | Yes | None listed |
WY | NG* |
Category | Examples | # (%) (n = 16)b |
---|---|---|
Canceling or postponing after school activities | Cancel performances, sports practices, or games | 11 (69%) |
Canceling classes or activities that occur during the school day with a high rate of mixing/contact | Cancel P.E.; cancel field trips; cancel choir | 7 (44%) |
Reducing mixing during transport | Suspend buses; discourage use of public transportation | 6 (38%) |
Increasing space among students during in-person instruction | Move class outdoors; re-arrange desks to increase space; divide classes into smaller groups; require students to remain seated in classroom | 5 (31%) |
Reduced schedule | Shorter school week; shorter school day; students come on alternating days | 4 (25%) |
Suspending use of common areas | Lunch in classrooms rather than in lunch room; no recess | 4 (25%) |
Implementing standard workplace social distancing measures for teachers and other staff | Limit face to face meetings; cancel staff meetings | 3 (19%) |
Partial Closure | Closure of one class; closure of one grade | 2 (13%) |
Instituting home room staya | Children remain with one group of children all day and teachers rotate through the room | 2 (13%) |
Segregating students within common areas | Require that students only eat with classmates in lunchroom; require that students stay in assigned section of school yard | 1 (6%) |
Reducing density/load in common areas through altered scheduling | Let classes out at different times so fewer students are in the hall at any one time | 1 (6%) |
Limiting visitorsa | Do not allow parents or other visitors; restrict vendor access to school | 1 (6%) |