Background
Methods
Participant recruitment and study design
Procedure
Intervention
Measures
PA and sedentary behavior
Psychological need satisfaction
Degree of autonomy support
Motivational regulations
Statistical analyses
Outcome analyses
Mediation analyses
Results
Recruitment and follow-up
Participant characteristics
Intervention group (N = 246) | Reference group (N = 54) | F or χ
2 value | |
---|---|---|---|
Age, mean (SD) | 41.0 (8.8) | 42.8 (8.5) | 0.810 |
Gender, % female | 76 | 80 | 0.257 |
BMI (kg/m2), mean (SD) | 26.5 (4.4) | 26.0 (4.4) | 0.295 |
Living situation, % living together | 91 | 96 | 4.041 |
Education, % higher/university education | 88 | 84 | 1.112 |
SWA-based PA, mean (SD) | |||
Steps (n/day) | |||
Weekdays | 9265.0 (3194.6) | 10006.2 (3766.2) | 3128 |
Weekend days | 10092.3 (4181.5) | 9597.3 (4506.6) | 1.206 |
Average days | 9501.4 (3088.2) | 9889.4 (3478.8) | 0.988 |
Sedentary time (min/day) (≤1.8 MET) | |||
Weekdays | 1049.5 (130.7) | 1005.2 (172.9) | 4.495* |
Weekend days | 1005.8 (147.7) | 998.8 (180.5) | 1.758 |
Average days | 1036.5 (118.4) | 1003.4 (154.6) | 3.385 |
Light PA (min/day) (>1.8- < 3 MET) | |||
Weekdays | 63.7 (40.9) | 72.5 (49.8) | 3.998 |
Weekend days | 93.6 (62.9) | 99.8 (63.1) | 0.000 |
Average days | 72.3 (42.2) | 81.8 (49.4) | 1.797 |
Moderate PA (min/day) (>3- < 6 MET) | |||
Weekdays | 34.0 (29.0) | 44.1 (46.8) | 6.493 |
Weekend days | 52.0 (49.6) | 51.2 (66.3) | 2.587 |
Average days | 40.6 (33.5) | 46.6 (51.1) | 4.757 |
Vigorous PA (min/day) (≥6 MET) | |||
Weekdays | 1.7 (3.8) | 3.1 (6.9) | 16.025 |
Weekend days | 1.4 (4.2) | 0.7 (3.6) | 3.358 |
Average days | 1.6 (3.4) | 2.4 (5.2) | 7.422 |
MVPA (min/day) (≥3 MET) | |||
Weekdays | 39.2 (34.4) | 51.6 (50.8) | 5.761* |
Weekend days | 57.8 (56.6) | 52.7 (67.5) | 0.774 |
Average days | 44.6 (36.3) | 52.4 (53.2) | 5.936 |
Self-reported PA, mean (SD) | |||
Sitting week (min/day) | 561.0 (161.0) | 508.1 (151.7) | 0.003* |
Sitting weekend (min/day) | 347.4 (159.7) | 300.8 (134.6) | 3.105 |
Walking (min/day) | 106.1 (145.2) | 155.4 (180.7) | 3.187* |
Moderate PA (min/day) | 42.6 (66.8) | 47.1 (67.5) | 0.353 |
Vigorous PA (min/day) | 25.2 (43.8) | 31.2 (42.9) | 0.361 |
Total PA (min/day) | 191.7 (220.1) | 237.0 (205.3) | 0.101 |
Psychological need satisfaction, mean (SD) | |||
Autonomy | 3.1 (0.8) | 3.2 (0.9) | 1.916 |
Competence | 2.8 (0.7) | 2.8 (0.8) | 1.860 |
Relatedness | 3.0 (1.1) | 3.1 (1.0) | 0.158 |
Total needsa
| 3.0 (0.7) | 3.0 (0.7) | 0.735 |
Exercise-related motivation, mean (SD) | |||
Amotivation | 4.6 (0.5) | 4.6 (0.5) | 0.144 |
Controlled motivationb
| 2.4 (0.6) | 2.3 (0.6) | 0.436 |
Autonomous motivationc
| 3.9 (0.6) | 4.0 (0.6) | 0.377 |
Intervention effects on PA and sedentary time
Intervention group | Reference group | Short-term intervention effect | Long-term intervention effect | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline | Post (3 months) | Follow-up (9 months) | Baseline | Post (3 months) | Follow-up (9 months) | Main effect of time | 2 x 2 interactiona
| ES | Main effect of time | 3 x 2 interactionb
| ES | |
Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | F | F | d | F | F | d | |
Steps (n/day) | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 9173.1 (203.0) | 10453.9 (207.7) | 9646.4 (226.5) | 10048.0 (446.7) | 9521.2 (458.7) | 10052.0 (460.1) | 2.938 | 16.403*** | 0.65 | 1.530 | 8.988*** | 0.48 |
Weekend days | 9851.5 (247.9) | 11604.1 (290.9) | 10971.9 (325.2) | 9650.3 (548.2) | 10418.0 (644.5) | 9977.6 (646.8) | 12.188** | 1.730 | 0.21 | 6.744** | 1.229 | 0.18 |
Average days | 9378.6 (188.7) | 10824.5 (197.7) | 10034.7 (223.3) | 9857.3 (416.4) | 9767.8 (436.2) | 9983.7 (456.4) | 12.674*** | 13.966*** | 0.60 | 6.187 | 7.830** | 0.45 |
Sedentary time (≤1.8 MET) | ||||||||||||
Weekdaysc
| 1039.1 (0.0) | 994.5 (9.2) | 1012.5 (9.6) | 1039.1 (0.0) | 1008.9 (20.5) | 1044.4 (20.4) | 13.015*** | 0.389 | 0.10 | 5.672 | 1.002 | 0.16 |
Weekend days | 1005.2 (10.0) | 949.3 (11.7) | 976.1 (11.7) | 997.5 (22.0) | 969.4 (25.7) | 987.0 (23.5) | 9.094** | 0.936 | 0.15 | 4.681 | 0.588 | 0.12 |
Average days | 1035.1 (8.1) | 986.4 (8.6) | 1010.2 (9.5) | 1001.3 (17.7) | 969.7 (18.7) | 1001.1 (19.3) | 20.734*** | 0.972 | 0.16 | 10.345*** | 1.115 | 0.17 |
Light PA (>1.8- < 3 MET) | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 64.1 (2.8) | 69.5 (2.9) | 68.0 (3.0) | 74.2 (6.1) | 73.7 (6.3) | 70.9 (6.1) | 0.217 | 1.506 | 0.20 | 0.372 | 0.744 | 0.14 |
Weekend days | 94.5 (4.1) | 93.7 (4.3) | 102.9 (4.5) | 98.5 (9.1) | 89.1 (9.5) | 93.9 (9.1) | 0.954 | 0.685 | 0.13 | 0.781 | 0.819 | 0.14 |
Average days | 73.1 (2.9) | 77.2 (3.0) | 78.4 (3.0) | 82.6 (6.2) | 77.8 (6.5) | 77.3 (6.1) | 0.116 | 2.734 | 0.26 | 0.009 | 1.673 | 0.21 |
Moderate PA (>3- < 6 MET) | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 34.6 (2.2) | 50.5 (2.8) | 41.8 (2.9) | 47.4 (4.8) | 52.4 (6.1) | 51.4 (5.8) | 9.513** | 2.733 | 0.26 | 5.322** | 1.389 | 0.19 |
Weekend days | 52.5 (3.5) | 69.9 (4.6) | 59.6 (4.5) | 55.1 (7.7) | 71.5 (10.1) | 64.6 (9.1) | 8.932** | 0.049 | 0.04 | 5.063** | 0.048 | 0.04 |
Average days | 41.3 (2.5) | 57.3 (3.0) | 47.6 (3.0) | 51.3 (5.5) | 58.5 (6.6) | 54.8 (6.1) | 12.020** | 2.083 | 0.23 | 6.577** | 0.950 | 0.16 |
Vigorous PA (≥6 MET) | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 1.7 (0.3) | 3.5 (0.4) | 3.2 (0.5) | 3.0 (0.6) | 2.5 (0.9) | 4.1 (0.9) | 1.791 | 4.704* | 0.35 | 2.889 | 2.625 | 0.26 |
Weekend days | 1.4 (0.3) | 4.5 (0.6) | 4.0 (0.7) | 0.7 (0.6) | 2.8 (1.3) | 5.0 (1.4) | 12.733*** | 0.406 | 0.10 | 14.044*** | 1.095 | 0.17 |
Average days | 1.6 (0.2) | 3.8 (0.4) | 3.3 (0.4) | 2.4 (0.6) | 2.6 (0.9) | 4.4 (0.9) | 6.928** | 3.008 | 0.28 | 8.285*** | 2.696 | 0.26 |
MVPA (≥3 MET) | ||||||||||||
Weekdaysd
| 41.3 (0.0) | 60.3 (3.4) | 51.1 (3.1) | 41.3 (0.0) | 42.5 (7.6) | 43.3 (6.7) | 5.905* | 4.582* | 0.34 | 3.052 | 2.281 | 0.24 |
Weekend days | 57.7 (3.8) | 81.2 (5.1) | 69.3 (5.0) | 56.1 (8.5) | 78.1 (11.1) | 79.1 (10.1) | 13.201*** | 0.063 | 0.04 | 8.870*** | 0.712 | 0.14 |
Average days | 45.2 (2.6) | 65.3 (3.3) | 54.8 (3.2) | 56.4 (5.8) | 65.4 (7.2) | 64.3 (6.5) | 14.478*** | 2.316 | 0.24 | 8.190*** | 1.263 | 0.18 |
Intervention group | Reference group | Short-term intervention effect | Long-term intervention effect | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline | Post (3 months) | Follow-up (9 months) | Baseline | Post (3 months) | Follow-up (9 months) | Main effect of time | 2x2 interactiona
| ES | Main effect of time | 3x2 interactionb
| ES | |
Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | F | F | d | F | F | d | |
Sitting weekc
| 551.1 (0.0) | 477.9 (11.6) | 508.0 (12.4) | 551.1 (0.0) | 513.9 (25.9) | 504.5 (12.4) | 15.327*** | 1.549 | 0.19 | 8.461*** | 1.251 | 0.17 |
Sitting weekend | 349.7 (10.1) | 305.4 (10.9) | 340.2 (12.6) | 299.7 (22.0) | 330.3 (22.1) | 316.3 (24.8) | 0.286 | 8.131** | 0.44 | 0.423 | 4.469* | 0.32 |
Walkingd
| 111.2 (0.0) | 127.6 (10.2) | 97.3 (11.3) | 111.2 (0.0) | 77.7 (22.7) | 50.5 (24.3) | 0.349 | 3.540 | 0.29 | 4.776** | 2.205 | 0.23 |
Moderate PA | 43.2 (4.3) | 80.7 (5.8) | 58.9 (5.5) | 47.5 (9.4) | 64.1 (12.0) | 48.3 (10.5) | 13.790*** | 2.020 | 0.22 | 6.940** | 1.130 | 0.16 |
Vigorous PA | 25.8 (2.8) | 69.5 (5.8) | 46.1 (4.7) | 30.8 (6.1) | 55.7 (12.0) | 55.3 (9.0) | 26.983*** | 2.056 | 0.22 | 17.384*** | 1.430 | 0.18 |
Total PA | 194.8 (14.1) | 280.6 (12.7) | 205.9 (11.1) | 242.3 (31.5) | 254.9 (26.5) | 207.6 (21.4) | 7.873** | 3.729 | 0.29 | 7.522** | 1.943 | 0.21 |
Objectively assessed PA and sedentary time
Self-reported PA and sitting time
PA guidelines based on objectively assessed and self-reported PA
Intervention group | Reference group | Short-term intervention effect | Long-term intervention effect | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline | Post (3 months) | Follow-up (9 months) | Baseline | Post (3 months) | Follow-up (9 months) | Main effect of time | 2x2 interactiona
| ES | Main effect of time | 3x2 interactionb
| ES | |
% | % | % | % | % | % |
χ
2
|
χ
2
| d |
χ
2
|
χ
2
| d | |
SWA-based PA | ||||||||||||
Steps guidelinec, % meeting guideline | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 34 | 51 | 43 | 40 | 34 | 44 | 1.997 | 9.548** | 0.37 | 3.658 | 10.107** | 0.38 |
Weekend days | 43 | 61 | 56 | 42 | 46 | 51 | 5.357* | 1.580 | 0.15 | 6.071* | 1.953 | 0.16 |
Average days | 36 | 58 | 46 | 38 | 35 | 44 | 7.545** | 12.422*** | 0.42 | 8.041* | 13.910** | 0.45 |
MVPA guidelined, % meeting guideline | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 50 | 67 | 66 | 60 | 62 | 63 | 4.949* | 2.804 | 0.20 | 5.617 | 2.787 | 0.20 |
Weekend days | 63 | 72 | 69 | 43 | 62 | 58 | 8.751** | 0.883 | 0.11 | 10.034** | 1.048 | 0.12 |
Average days | 55 | 76 | 71 | 53 | 69 | 63 | 21.261*** | 0.537 | 0.09 | 21.846*** | 0.721 | 0.10 |
Self-reported PA | ||||||||||||
MVPA guidelined, % meeting guideline | 61 | 83 | 76 | 63 | 66 | 81 | 10.167** | 6.163* | 0.29 | 15.406*** | 9.408** | 0.36 |
Intervention effects on psychological need satisfaction
Intervention group | Reference group | Short-term intervention effect | Long-term intervention effect | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline | Post (3 months) | Follow-up (9 months) | Baseline | Post (3 months) | Follow-up (9 months) | Main effect of time | 2x2 interactiona
| ES | Main effect of time | 3x2 interactionb
| ES | |
Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | F | F | d | F | F | d | |
Need satisfaction (1–5) | ||||||||||||
Autonomy | 3.05 (0.05) | 3.51 (0.05) | 3.43 (0.06) | 3.17 (0.11) | 3.32 (0.10) | 3.30 (0.12) | 21.517*** | 5.331* | 0.35 | 10.860*** | 3.002 | 0.26 |
Competence | 2.80 (0.05) | 3.17 (0.05) | 2.96 (0.07) | 2.77 (0.10) | 2.77 (0.11) | 2.72 (0.13) | 6.820** | 6.803* | 0.40 | 3.889* | 3.894* | 0.30 |
Relatedness | 3.03 (0.07) | 3.14 (0.07) | 2.92 (0.09) | 3.05 (0.15) | 3.06 (0.14) | 2.92 (0.18) | 0.538 | 0.332 | 0.09 | 1.806 | 0.227 | 0.07 |
Total needsc
| 2.96 (0.04) | 3.27 (0.04) | 3.11 (0.05) | 3.00 (0.09) | 3.05 (0.09) | 3.00 (0.11) | 10.260** | 5.085* | 0.34 | 5.664** | 3.060* | 0.27 |
Short-term intervention effects
Long-term intervention effects
Mediation effects of psychological need satisfaction on daily step count
Short-term (3 months) | Long-term (9 months) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
α-path | β-path | αβ-path | α-path | β-path | αβ-path | |
Mediator variables | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (95% CI) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (95% CI) |
Need satisfaction | ||||||
Autonomy | ||||||
Weekday steps | 0.24 (0.15) | 620.97 (196.74)** | 151.57 (-0.47–421.36) | 0.37 (0.16)* | 410.34 (221.57) | 151.43 (13.64–419.73)* |
Average day steps | 0.23 (0.15) | 436.83 (176.81)* | 100.83 (-3.33–76.86) | 0.36 (0.16)* | 538.01 (195.02)** | 195.68 (29.42–510.41)* |
Competence | ||||||
Weekday steps | 0.40 (0.17)* | 626.11 (168.59)*** | 249.93 (76.80–541.99)* | 0.34 (0.18) | 514.84 (198.98)* | 173.22 (20.86–454.86)* |
Average day steps | 0.39 (0.17)* | 498.37 (151.38)** | 196.23 (50.97–433.38)* | 0.34 (0.18) | 576.19 (176.03)** | 194.44 (25.47–447.12)* |
Relatedness | ||||||
Weekday steps | 0.06 (0.19) | 517.67 (151.04)*** | 28.85 (-145.65–240.08) | 0.12 (0.21) | -63.58 (172.17) | -7.53 (-137.01–38.26) |
Average day steps | 0.04 (0.19) | 365.89 (136.62) | 13.92 (-104.44–166.38) | 0.08 (0.22) | 88.76 (150.16) | 7.08 (-33.93–134.05) |
Total needsa
| ||||||
Weekday steps | 0.23 (0.13) | 942.42 (212.80)*** | 219.59 (3.51–508.61)* | 0.27 (0.14)* | 431.44 (261.95) | 118.50 (9.61–366.94)* |
Average day steps | 0.22 (0.14) | 695.09 (192.17)*** | 153.53 (0.65–394.47)* | 0.26 (0.14) | 646.93 (230.33)** | 168.41 (15.44–431.02)* |