Maintenance of intracellular iron content is secured by two cytoplasmic iron-regulatory proteins 1 and 2 (IRP1 and IRP2, also known as ACO1 and IREB2) [
46]. Cellular ID stimulates binding of IRPs to cis-regulatory iron-responsive elements (IREs) in the 5′ or 3′ untranslated regions of target mRNAs encoding proteins responsible for iron import (transferrin receptor, TfR1; divalent metal transporter 1, DMT1), sequestration (ferritin H- and L-chains; FTH1, FTL, respectively) and export (ferroportin) [
47]. IRPs interact with 5′ IRES in ferroportin and ferritin mRNAs to inhibit their translation and with 3′ IREs in TfR1 to increase its stability and to protect from degradation [
48]. In that manner, IRPs promote iron efflux and increase its availability for production of haem- and iron-sulphur proteins in cytosol or mitochondria [
47]. Conversely, when intracellular iron is in excess, IRP1 loses ability to bind IREs, and instead binds an iron-sulphur cluster to start functioning as an aconitase enzyme, while IRP2 is targeted for proteasomal degradation [
49]. IRP activity is significantly reduced in LV tissue in patients with advanced HF and LV tissue ID [
50].
Functional implications of ID in the heart independently of systemic ID and anaemia were recently investigated by Haddad et al. [
50]. In the study, cardiomyocyte-specific deletion of Irp1 and Irp2 (Cre-Irp1/2
f/f) in mice resulted in significant reduction of iron concentration in LV and also in isolated cardiomyocytes with no evident change in the phenotype under the baseline conditions. Interestingly, under acute dobutamine hemodynamic stress, Cre-Irp1/2
f/f mice exhibited functional abnormalities, in particular inability to increase LV systolic function. After induction of myocardial infarction (MI), Irp-targeted mice presented more pronounced LV hypertrophy, greater increase in cardiomyocyte size and higher expression of embryonic marker genes. Additionally, LV dilatation and systolic dysfunction were more evident than in control mice. Furthermore, Cre-Irp1/2
f/f mice exhibited symptoms of ongoing HF failure, such as pulmonary congestion, accumulation of serous fluid in the chest cavity and increased mortality. Considering cardiomyocyte mitochondria, there were no significant differences between IRP-targeted mice and controls. However, the activity of ETC Complex I was significantly decreased, while the activity of complex IV was not affected. The oxygen consumption rate (OCR) in cardiomyocytes was not remarkably different in baseline conditions, showing that ATP production was comparable in both Cre-Irp1/2
f/f and control mice. However, upon maximal respiration, OCR increase in IRP1/2-deficient mice was strongly weakened when compared to the control mice. At baseline conditions, glycolytic activity of IRP-targeted mice was not affected; however, in maximal respiration, it increased to a smaller extent compared to control. In vivo cardiac energy metabolism study by
31P-magnetic resonance spectroscopy did not show any differences in PCr/ATP ratio in LV between Cre-Irp1/2
f/f and control. Nevertheless, after dobutamine stress, PCr/ATP ratio fell down significantly only in Cre-Irp1/2
f/f, indicating limitation of high-energy phosphate deposits in IRP cardiomyocyte-knockout.
Noteworthy, cardiomyocyte single IRP1- or single IRP2-targeted mice did not develop MID and did not exhibit any of aforementioned symptoms.
Intravenous ferric carboxymaltose (FCM) injection restored both iron concentration in IRP-targeted left ventricle and OCR in maximal respiration in Cre-Irp1/2f/f cardiomyocytes as well as restituted systolic function in dobutamine-stimulated Cre-Irp1/2f/f mice. Moreover, i.v. iron treatment additionally prevented from increased hypertrophy after MI. FCM treatment in post-infarct IRP-targeted mice also improved LV systolic function and attenuated LV dilatation.