Background
Level of evidence | Observation | References |
---|---|---|
Clinical | Effusion, joint swelling or palpable synovitis | |
Sudden increase in pain | ||
Night pain and morning stiffness | ||
Histological | Synovial hypertrophy and hyperplasia | |
Infiltration of mononuclear cells (monocytes/macrophages, activated B cells and T cells) | ||
Adaptive immune T-cell and B-cell responses to fragments of extracellular matrix | ||
Macrophages cluster and form multinucleated giant cells for improved phagocytosis | ||
Increased angiogenesis | ||
Synovitis close to degenerative cartilage | ||
Molecular | Production and/or release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-15, IL-17, IL-18, IL-21) | |
Increased production of PGE2 and nitric oxide | ||
Increased expression of adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1) in the synovium | ||
Increased activity of MMPs (MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-9, MMP-13) and ADAMTS | ||
Production of adipokines (visfatin, leptin, adiponectin) | ||
Release of EGF and VEGF | ||
Involvement of macrophages in osteophyte formation via BMPs | ||
Insufficient release of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, IL-1Ra) | ||
Release of pro-inflammatory and pain neurotransmitters (substance P, NGF) | ||
Imaging | Gadolinium-enhanced synovium and increased synovial volume detected by MRI | |
MRI correlates with histological observations and joint volume by arthrocentesis | ||
High prevalence of synovial hypertrophy and effusion using ultrasound | ||
Association between MRI-detected and ultrasound-detected synovitis and clinical symptoms of synovitis | ||
MRI-detected and ultrasound-detected synovitis predicts incident radiographic OA, progression and cartilage degradation | ||
Interventions | High dose of IA corticosteroid injection may have short-term effects on clinical symptoms and synovial tissue volume | |
Methotrexate may have an analgesic effect | ||
Biological response modifiers have potentially structural-modifying effects |