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Erschienen in: European Journal of Applied Physiology 1/2020

05.12.2019 | Invited Review

The energy cost of swimming and its determinants

verfasst von: Paola Zamparo, Matteo Cortesi, Giorgio Gatta

Erschienen in: European Journal of Applied Physiology | Ausgabe 1/2020

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Abstract

The energy expended to transport the body over a given distance (C, the energy cost) increases with speed both on land and in water. At any given speed, C is lower on land (e.g., running or cycling) than in water (e.g., swimming or kayaking) and this difference can be easily understood when one considers that energy should be expended (among the others) to overcome resistive forces since these, at any given speed, are far larger in water (hydrodynamic resistance, drag) than on land (aerodynamic resistance). Another reason for the differences in C between water and land locomotion is the lower capability to exert useful forces in water than on land (e.g., a lower propelling efficiency in the former case). These two parameters (drag and efficiency) not only can explain the differences in C between land and water locomotion but can also explain the differences in C within a given form of locomotion (swimming at the surface, which is the topic of this review): e.g., differences between strokes or between swimmers of different age, sex, and technical level. In this review, the determinants of C (drag and efficiency, as well as energy expenditure in its aerobic and anaerobic components) will, thus, be described and discussed. In aquatic locomotion it is difficult to obtain quantitative measures of drag and efficiency and only a comprehensive (biophysical) approach could allow to understand which estimates are “reasonable” and which are not. Examples of these calculations are also reported and discussed.
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Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Pendergast DR, Mollendorf J, Termin A, Minetti AE (2005a) An energy balance of front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 94:134–144PubMed Zamparo P, Pendergast DR, Mollendorf J, Termin A, Minetti AE (2005a) An energy balance of front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 94:134–144PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Bonifazi M, Faina M, Milan A, Sardella F, Schena F, Capelli C (2005b) Energy cost of swimming of elite long distance swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 94:697–704PubMed Zamparo P, Bonifazi M, Faina M, Milan A, Sardella F, Schena F, Capelli C (2005b) Energy cost of swimming of elite long distance swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 94:697–704PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Carignani G, Plaino L, Sgalmuzzo B, Capelli C (2008a) Energetics of locomotion with pedal driven watercrafts. J Sport Sci 26(1):75–81 Zamparo P, Carignani G, Plaino L, Sgalmuzzo B, Capelli C (2008a) Energetics of locomotion with pedal driven watercrafts. J Sport Sci 26(1):75–81
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Lazzer S, Antoniazzi C, Cedolin S, Avon R, Lesa C (2008b) The interplay between propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl in 8 to19-year-old swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 104:689–699PubMed Zamparo P, Lazzer S, Antoniazzi C, Cedolin S, Avon R, Lesa C (2008b) The interplay between propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl in 8 to19-year-old swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 104:689–699PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Gatta G, Capelli C, Pendergast DR (2009) Active and passive drag, the role of trunk incline. Eur J Appl Physiol 106:195–205PubMed Zamparo P, Gatta G, Capelli C, Pendergast DR (2009) Active and passive drag, the role of trunk incline. Eur J Appl Physiol 106:195–205PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Capelli C, Pendergast DR (2011) Energetics of swimming: a historical perspective. Eur J Appl Physiol 111:367–378PubMed Zamparo P, Capelli C, Pendergast DR (2011) Energetics of swimming: a historical perspective. Eur J Appl Physiol 111:367–378PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Dall’Ora A, Toneatto A, Cortesi M, Gatta G (2012a) The determinants of performance in master swimmers: age related changes in propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 112(12):3949–3957PubMed Zamparo P, Dall’Ora A, Toneatto A, Cortesi M, Gatta G (2012a) The determinants of performance in master swimmers: age related changes in propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 112(12):3949–3957PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Gatta G, di Prampero PE (2012b) The determinants of performance in master swimmers: an analysis of master world records. Eur J Appl Physiol 112:3511–3518PubMed Zamparo P, Gatta G, di Prampero PE (2012b) The determinants of performance in master swimmers: an analysis of master world records. Eur J Appl Physiol 112:3511–3518PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Turri E, Peterson Silveria R, Poli A (2014) The interplay between arms-only propelling efficiency, power output and speed in master swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 144(6):1259–1268 Zamparo P, Turri E, Peterson Silveria R, Poli A (2014) The interplay between arms-only propelling efficiency, power output and speed in master swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 144(6):1259–1268
Zurück zum Zitat Zamparo P, Baldassarre R, Bonifazi M, Piacentini MF (2019) Open water swimming. In: Datta S, Bagchi D (eds) Extreme and rare sports. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, pp 11–33 Zamparo P, Baldassarre R, Bonifazi M, Piacentini MF (2019) Open water swimming. In: Datta S, Bagchi D (eds) Extreme and rare sports. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, pp 11–33
Zurück zum Zitat Zocca R, Toubekis A, Freitas L, Silva AF, Azevedo R, Vilas-Boas JP, Pyne DB, De Sousa-Castro F, Fernandes RJ (2017) Effects of detraining in age group swimmers, performance, energetics and kinematics. J Sport Sci 37(13):1490–1498 Zocca R, Toubekis A, Freitas L, Silva AF, Azevedo R, Vilas-Boas JP, Pyne DB, De Sousa-Castro F, Fernandes RJ (2017) Effects of detraining in age group swimmers, performance, energetics and kinematics. J Sport Sci 37(13):1490–1498
Metadaten
Titel
The energy cost of swimming and its determinants
verfasst von
Paola Zamparo
Matteo Cortesi
Giorgio Gatta
Publikationsdatum
05.12.2019
Verlag
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Erschienen in
European Journal of Applied Physiology / Ausgabe 1/2020
Print ISSN: 1439-6319
Elektronische ISSN: 1439-6327
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-019-04270-y

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