Background
Peptide-based therapeutic approach in HD and polyglutamine diseases
Peptide | Target of the peptide | Model | Population | Way of administration | End point | Method of evaluation | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bivalent Htt-binding peptide (Kazantsev et al., 2002) [31] | PolyQ stretches | Cell culture | COS-1 cells | Co-transfection of hHtt17aa-103Q ± bivalent Htt-binding peptide | Aggregation | % of aggregate-positive transfected cells | Delayed aggregate formation: 37.6 % reduction at 48 h; no reduction at 96 h |
Drosophila HD |
ELAV-Gal4; UAS- 48/108Q | Genetic cross: bivalent Htt-binding peptide vs placebo | Survival | Survival rate | Significant increased survival | ||
Aggregation (CNS) | Immunostaining on L3 larvae | Significant aggregate reduction | |||||
GMR-Gal4; UAS- 48/108Q | Genetic cross: bivalent Htt-binding peptide vs placebo | Photoreceptor neurodegeneration | Quantification of the number of rhabdomeres/ommatidium | Significant rescue of eye neurodegeneration | |||
Polyglutamine-binding peptide 1 (QBP1) (Nagai et al., 2000) [32] | Expanded polyQ stretch | Cell culture | COS-7 cells | Co-transfection of 45Q-/57Q-/81Q-YFP ± QBP1-CFP | Aggregation | % of aggregate-positive transfected cells | Significant aggregate reduction, more important with shorter polyQ |
(QBP1)2 (Nagai et al., 2003) [33] | Expanded polyQ stretch | Drosophila polyQ models |
GMR-92Q | Genetic cross: Eyeless-Gal4; UAS-(QBP1)2 or GMR-Gal4; UAS-(QBP1)2
| Photoreceptor neurodegeneration | Phenotypical comparative analysis (adult flies) | Significant suppression of eye degeneration |
GMR-Gal4; UAS-MJDtr-78Q | Genetic cross: UAS-(QBP1)2
| Photoreceptor neurodegeneration | Phenotypical comparative analysis (adult flies) | Significant suppression of eye degeneration | |||
GMR-92Q | Genetic cross: Eyeless-Gal4; UAS-(QBP1)2
| Aggregation in the eye imaginal disc | Immunostaining (third instar larvae) | Significant inclusion bodies reduction | |||
ELAV-Gal4; UAS-MJDtr-78Q | Genetic cross: UAS-(QBP1)2 or UAS-(scrambled)2
| Survival | Life span (adult flies) | Significant increase in survival (median life span from 5.5 to 52 days) | |||
PTD-QBP1 | Expanded polyQ stretch | Cell culture (Popiel et al., 2007) [39] | COS-7 cells | Co-transfection of 81Q-GFP ± Antp-QBP1 provided in the cell medium | Aggregation | % of transfected cells forming inclusion bodies | Significant reduction (from 42 % to 30 %) |
COS-7 cells | Co-transfection of 57Q-GFP ± TAT-QBP1 provided in the cell medium | Cell survival | Quantification of cell death | Significant reduction of cell death (from 11.8 % to 7.4 %) | |||
Drosophila polyQ model (Popiel et al., 2007) [39] |
ELAV-Gal4; UAS-MJDtr-78Q | Oral administration of Antp-QBP1 | Survival | Survival rate (5,10, and 15 days) | Significant increase | ||
Aggregation in the eye imaginal disc | Immunostaining (third instar larvae) | Significant reduction of inclusion bodies | |||||
Mouse model (Popiel et al., 2009) [40] | R6/2 mice | Long-term continuous intraperitoneal administration of either Antp-QBP1 (2 mg/week) or saline from wk2 | Motor performances | Latency to fall with accelerating rotarod (from wk5 to death) | No significant difference | ||
Body weight | Weight measure (from wk5 to death) | Significant weight increased compared to saline-treated mice from wk5 to 10 | |||||
Survival | Life span | No significant difference | |||||
Long-term continuous intraperitoneal administration of either Antp-QBP1 (2 mg/week) or saline from wk2 | Aggregation | Brain section immunostaining with anti-htt antibody | No significant difference | ||||
ED11 (Aharony et al., 2015) [41] | Inhibitor of caspase-6 | Cell culture | PC12 cells | Inducible mHtt- 145Q ± TAT-ED11 provided in the cell medium | Survival | Cell viability and cell death assessment | Significant increased cell viability and decreased cell death |
Mouse model | Full-length hHtt-97Q BACHD | Pre-symptomatic treatment (from wk5); continuous infusion (4 mg/kg/day; subcutaneously implanted mini-pump) of ED11 peptide vs vehicle in BACHD mice and of vehicle in wt mice | Body weight (excessive weight) | Weight measure | Attenuation of weight gain | ||
Motor performances | Latency to fall with accelerating rotarod (monthly from wk9) | Preserved motor performance compared to wt mice. | |||||
Depressive-like behaviour | Immobility evaluation during the forced swim test (FST) (5 months of age) | Prevention of increased immobility | |||||
Basal locomotor activity, exploratory activity, anxiety-related behaviour | Open field test (wk22): total travelled distance; time spent in the centre and number of transitions to the centre | Unchanged basal locomotor activity; lower anxiety levels and improved exploratory behaviour in treated vs untreated mice | |||||
Inhibition of caspase-6 activity | Quantification of mHtt586aa fragments (6-month-old mice) | Not evaluable (no detectable mHtt586aa fragments in untreated mice) | |||||
Aggregation | Immunostaining (6-month-old mice) | Not evaluable (no detectable aggregates in untreated mice) | |||||
Post-symptomatic treatment (from w36); continuous infusion (4 mg/kg/day; subcutaneously implanted mini-pump) of ED11 peptide vs vehicle in BACHD mice and of vehicle in wt mice | Motor performances | Latency to fall with accelerating rotarod (monthly, wk30 to 44) | Increased motor performance compared to untreated mice | ||||
Depressive-like behaviour | Immobility evaluation during the forced swim test (FST) (11 months of age) | Rescue at the level of wt littermates | |||||
Cognitive deficits | Swimming T-maze test; shifting abilities (time to reach the re-located hidden platform) | Rescue at the level of wt littermates | |||||
Brain atrophy | MRI volumetric measurements (12 months of age) | Not evaluable (no significant atrophy in untreated BACHD mice) |
Antibody | Target of the peptide | Model | Population | Way of administration | End point | Method of evaluation | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C4 intrabody | N17 terminal region | Cell culture (Lecerf et al., 2001) [44] | COS-7; BHK-21; HEK293 | Co-transfection: hHtt17aa-25/73/103Q-GFP ± C4 intrabody (ratio 5:1) | Aggregation | % of aggregate-positive transfected cells | Reduction up to 86 % |
Organotypic cultures (Murphy and Messer, 2004) [46] | Cortico-striatal slice cultures | Malonate treatment, and transfection with hHtt17aa-25/72Q-GFP ± C4 intrabody | Cell survival | % of co-transfected died or dying cells | Rescue to wt level | ||
Drosophila model (Wolfgang et al., 2005) [45] | ELAV-Gal4; UAS-hHttex1-20/93Q; | Genetic cross: UAS-C4 intrabody” | Survival | % of survival to adult (eclosion); mean, median, and maximal lifespan | Increased survival to adulthood (from 23 % to 100 %); increased mean adult lifespan by 30-50 % | ||
Aggregation; quantification of soluble polyQ forms | Immunostaining; detergent-soluble hHttex1-93Q detection (Western blot) | Slowing of visible aggregate formation. Increased levels of soluble Htt | |||||
Neurodegeneration | Photoreceptors/ommatidium quantification | Slowing of neurodegeneration in photoreceptors cells | |||||
Mouse model (Snyder-Keller et al., 2010) [47] | B6.HD6/1 125Q (hHttex1-125Q) | C4 intrabody with AAV vector into the striatum; presymptomatic (injection: wk5 to 8 ; killed at wk16 to 32); symptomatic (injection wk 10 to 24; killed 8 to 10 wk later) | Aggregation | Immunostainig: number and size aggregates | Pre-symptomatic and symptomatic effect: aggregate reduction (size > number), more important in pre-symptomatically treated mice | ||
VL12.3 intrabody | N17 terminal region | Cell culture (Colby et al., 2004) [48] | HEK293 | Co-tranfection: hHttex1-97Q-GFP + empty vector or VL12.3 | Aggregation | Immunostaining | 50 % reduction of aggregates vs empty vector |
Cell culture (Southwell et al., 2008) [49] | HEK293 | Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q-GFP + empty vector or VL12.3 | Aggregation | Immunostaining | Dose-dependent aggregate reduction | ||
Cell survival | % of co-transfected dead cells | Reduced cell toxicity | |||||
Co-transfection: hHttex1-25/103Q-GFP + VL12.3 | Quantification of soluble and insoluble hHttex1
| Centrifugation and Immunoblot assay | Significant reduction of insoluble but not of soluble hHttex1-103Q levels | ||||
Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q -SNAP tag ± VL12.3 | hHttex1-103Q turnover | Fluorescence intensity of SNAP-tag | No effect on polyQ turnover | ||||
Cortico-striatal brain slice model (Southwell et al., 2008) [49] | Rat brain slices | Co-transfection: YFP as morphometric marker ± hHttex1-103Q -CFP ± VL12.3 | Neurodegeneration | Immunostaining: counting of healthy striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) | Rescue of neurodegeneration at the level of wt cells | ||
ST14A striatal precursor cells | Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q -GFP ± VL12.3 | hHttex1-103Q localisation and turnover | Immunostaining: cytoplasmic/nuclear hHttex1-103Q ratio | Altered cytoplasmic/nuclear trafficking: significant increase of nuclear Htt | |||
Mouse model (Southwell et al., 2009) [51] | C57BL/6 (lentiviral HD model) | HD model: Unilateral striatal injection: hHttex1-103Q -GFP or GFP lentivirus.Treatment: + VL12.3- AAV or GFP (4 wk-old mice). Tests 6wks later. | Amphetamine-induced rotation | Ipsilateral rotations tested during 30’ after intraperitoneal amphetamine injection. | Strong reduction of the number of ipsilateral rotations to the levels of GFP lentivirus injected animals | ||
MSNs loss | DARPP-32 staining | Rescue to the levels of GFP lentivirus injected animals | |||||
Aggregation | Striatal immunostaining with anti-Htt MW8 (detect aggregates only) | Significant aggregate reduction vs AAV-GFP injected animals | |||||
YAC128 (Full length-hHtt-128Q) | 2-months-old male mice and wt littermates injected bilaterally in the striatum with GFP- or VL12.3- AAV | Motor performances | Rotarod latency to fall (monthly from 3 to 7 months of age) | No effect | |||
Beam-crossing performance (monthly from 3 to 7 months of age) | No effect | ||||||
Climbing time (7-month-old mice) | No effect | ||||||
Cognitive performances (spatial and cortical learning) | Novel object location and novel object preference tests (7-month-old mice) | No effect in both tests | |||||
Anxiety | Open field test | Non significant amelioration | |||||
Brain atrophy | Ventricular size assessment (7-month-old mice) | No effect | |||||
Body weight | Assessment monthly from 3 to 7 months of age | No effect | |||||
R6/2 (hhttex1- 144Q) | 3-day-old male mice and wt littermates: bilateral injection at the center of each forebrain hemisphere of GFP- or VL12.3-AAV | Motor performances | Rotarod latency to fall (weekly from w4 to death) | Reduced latency to fall (wk 10 to 12) | |||
Beam-crossing performance (weekly from w4 to death) | No rescue: Increased severity of the phenotype (time to cross the beam) | ||||||
Brain atrophy | Ventricular size assessment (10-wk-old mice) | No effect | |||||
Body weight | Assessment weekly from 4 wk until death | No effect | |||||
Aggregation | Striatal immunostaining with anti-Htt MW8 (detect aggregates only) and nuclear marker; counting of positive foci (10 week-old mice) | Reduction of the number of neuropil aggregates; no significant reduction of intranuclear aggregates | |||||
Life span | Once ill, twice a day assessment of righting reflex | Aggravation and decrease survival | |||||
MW7 intrabody | Poly P region | Cell culture (Khoshnan et al., 2002) [50] | HEK293 | Co-transfection: hHttex1-97Q-GFP and MW7 or empty vector | Aggregated/soluble Htt | Centrifugation, SDS treatment and western blotting | Reduction of both aggregated and soluble polyQHtt |
Cell survival | TUNEL staining | 33 % reduction of TUNEL positive cells | |||||
Cell culture (Southwell et al., 2008) [49] | HEK293 | Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q-GFP + empty vector or MW7 | Aggregation | Immunostaining | Aggregate reduction with a threshold-effect | ||
Cell survival | % of co-transfected dead cells | Reduced cell toxicity | |||||
Co-transfection: hHttex1-25/103Q-GFP + MW7 | Quantification of soluble and insoluble hHttex1
| Centrifugation and Immunoblot essay | Significant reduction of both soluble and insoluble hHttex1-103Q; no effect on soluble wt hHttex1-25Q | ||||
Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q-SNAP tag ± MW7 | hHttex1-103Q turnover | Fluorescence intensity of SNAP tag | Significant decreased fluorescence (increased hHttex1-103Q turnover) | ||||
Cortico-striatal brain slice model (Southwell et al., 2008) [49] | Rat brain slices | Co-transfection: YFP ± hHttex1-103Q -CFP ± MW7 | Neurodegeneration | Immunostaining: counting of healthy MSNs | Non-significant reduction of neurodegeneration | ||
ST14A striatal precursor | Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q -GFP ± MW7 | hHttex1-103Q localisation and turnover | Immunostaining: cytoplasmic/nuclear hHttex1-103Q ratio | No effect | |||
Happ1-Happ3 antibodies | Poly P region | Cell culture (Southwell 2008) [49] | HEK293 | Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q-GFP + empty vector or Happ1-Happ3 | Aggregation | Immunostaining | Dose-dependent aggregate reduction |
Cell survival | % of co-transfected dead cells | Reduced cell toxicity | |||||
Co-transfection: hHttex1-25/103Q-GFP + Happ1-Happ3 | Quantification of soluble and insoluble hHttex1
| Centrifugation and Immunoblot essay | Significant reduction of both soluble and insoluble hHttex1-103Q; no effect on soluble wt hHttex1-25Q | ||||
Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q-SNAP tag ± Happ1-Happ3 | hHttex1-103Q turnover | Fluorescence intensity of SNAP tag | Significant decreased fluorescence (increased hHttex1-103Q turnover) | ||||
Cortico-striatal brain slice model (Southwell et al., 2008) [49] | Rat brain slices | Co-transfection: YFP as morphometric marker ± hHttex1-103Q -CFP ± Happ1-Happ3 | Neurodegeneration | Immunostaining: counting of MSNs | Significant reduction of neurodegeneration | ||
ST14A striatal precursor | Co-transfection: hHttex1-103Q -GFP ± Happ1-Happ3 | hHttex1-103Q localisation and turnover | Immunostaining: cytoplasmic/nuclear hHttex1-103Q ratio | No effect | |||
Mouse model (Southwell et al., 2009) [51] | C57BL/6 (lentiviral HD model) | HD model: Unilateral striatal injection: hHttex1-103Q -GFP or GFP lentivirus.Treatment: + GFP- or Happ1- AAV (4 wk-old mice). Tests 6wks later. | Amphetamine-induced rotation, | Ipsilateral rotations tested during 30’ after intraperitoneal amphetamine injection. | Strong reduction of the number of ipsilateral rotations to the levels of GFP lentivirus injected animals | ||
MSNs loss | DARPP-32 staining | Rescue to the levels of GFP lentivirus injected animals | |||||
Aggregation | Striatal immunostaining with anti-Htt MW8 (detect aggregates only) and nuclear marker; counting of positive foci. | Significant aggregate reduction vs AAV-GFP injected animals | |||||
YAC128 (Full length-hHtt-128Q) | 2-months-old male mice and wt littermates injected bilaterally in the striatum with GFP- or Happ1- AAV | Motor performances | Rotarod latency to fall (monthly from 3 to 7 months of age) | Improvement in 3-, 4-, and 7 –month-old mice | |||
Beam-crossing performance (monthly from 3 to 7 months of age) | Partial improvement | ||||||
Climbing (7-month-old mice) | Increased climbing time to the level of wt littermates | ||||||
Cognitive performances (spatial and cortical learning) | Novel object location and novel object preference tests (7-month-old mice) | Significant amelioration of spatial and cortical learning | |||||
Anxiety | Open field test | Rescue to the level of wt littermates | |||||
Brain atrophy | Ventricular size assessment (7-month-old mice) | Reduction of ventricular size | |||||
Body weight | Assessment monthly from 3 to 7 months of age | No effect | |||||
R6/2 (hhttex1- 144Q) | 3-day-old male mice and wt littermates: bilateral injection at the center of each forebrain hemisphere of GFP- or Happ-AAV | Motor performances | Rotarod latency to fall (weekly from 4 wk until death) | Amelioration (between w9 and 12 of age) vs GFP-AVV injected animals. | |||
Beam-crossing performance (weekly from 4 wk until death) | Reduction of the time to cross the 12 mm beam in 10- and 11-week-old mice, and the 6 mm beam between 9 and 11 weeks of age | ||||||
Brain atrophy | Ventricular size assessment (10-wk-old mice) | Reduction of ventricular size to the level of wt littermates | |||||
Body weight | Assessment weekly from 4 wk until death | No effect | |||||
Aggregation | Striatal immunostaining with anti-Htt MW8 (detect aggregates only) and nuclear marker; counting of positive foci (10 week-old mice). | Reduction of the number of both neuropil and intranuclear aggregates. | |||||
Life span | Once ill, twice a day assessment of righting reflex | No effect | |||||
N171-82Q: hHtt171aa-82Q | Four-week old male mice and wt littermates: bilateral striatal injection of GFP- or Happ1-AAV | Motor performances | Latency to fall with accelerating rotarod (every 2 wks from wk6 until death) | Significant improvement from wk 20 to 40 at the level of wt mice | |||
Beam-crossing performance (every 2 wks from wk6 until death) | Significant improvement with reduction of time to cross the three beams vs GFP-AAV treated and wt mice. | ||||||
Clasping (22-week-old mice) | Attenuation of clasping behavior | ||||||
Body weight | Assessment every 2 wks from wk6 until death | Increased weight vs GFP-AAV treated but not to the level of wt littermates (from wk 22) | |||||
Life span | Once ill, twice a day assessment of righting reflex | 33 % increase of maximum life-span (from 30 to 40 wk) vs GFP-AAV treated mice. | |||||
BACHD: Full-length- hHtt-97Q- | 2-months-old male mice and wt littermates: bilateral striatal injection of GFP- or Happ1-AAV | Motor performances | Rotarod latency to fall (monthly from month 3 to 6) | Increased latency to fall in 5- and 6- month-old mice | |||
Beam-crossing performances (monthly from month 3 to 6) | Decrease time to cross the beams at 5 and 6 months (28 mm beam) and at month 6 (6 mm beam) | ||||||
Climbing time (6-month-old mice) | Increased climbing time vs GFP treatment | ||||||
Cognitive performances (spatial and cortical learning) | Novel object location and novel object preference tests (6-month-old mice) | No effect | |||||
Anxiety | Open field test | Significant effect vs GFP-AAV treated mice | |||||
Brain atrophy | Ventricular size assessment (6-month-old mice) | Reduction of ventricular size | |||||
Body weight | Assessment monthly (from 3 to 6 months of age) | No effect | |||||
mEM48 intrabody (Wang et al., 2008) [52] | VA residues after the polyP region | Cell culture | HEK293 | Co-transfection: hHtt208aa 23/130Q ± EM48 | Cell survival | % of co-transfected dead cells | Improved cell viability |
Rat cortical neurons | Co-transfection: hHtt208aa 23/130Q ± EM48 | Neuritic disruption and pyknotic nuclei | Neuronal morphology | Significant reduction of transfected neurons with disrupted neurites or fragmented nuclei | |||
PC12 cells | Transfection of hHtt208aa 23/130Q ± AAV-EM48 | Neuropil aggregates | Immunostaining | Significant reduction of neuropil aggregates | |||
Mouse model | R6/2 (hhttex1- 144Q) | Intrastriatal injection of helper dependent AAV EM48 (7-wk-old mice) | Neuropil aggregates | Immunostaining (4 wk after injection) | Significant less neuropil aggregates vs non injected region; no effect on intranuclear inclusion | ||
N171-82Q | Bilateral striatal injection of helper dependent AAV EM48 (10-wk-old mice) | Neuropil aggregates | Immunostaining (6 wk after injection) | Significant less neuropil aggregates vs non injected region; no effect on intranuclear inclusions | |||
Motor performances | Stride length (8-wk post injection) | Improvement | |||||
Rotarod latency to fall (8-wk post injection) | Significant improvement | ||||||
Body weight | No effect | ||||||
Survival | No effect | ||||||
PolyQ chain (soluble) | Cell culture | COS-1 | Co-transfection: hHttex1-51Q ± 1C2 | Aggregation | Filter retardation assay | Up to 85 % reduction in aggregates |
Peptide | Model | Population | Way of administration | End point | Method of evaluation | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P42 (Arribat et al., 2013) [55] | Cell culture | HeLa cells (hHtt171aa-136Q) | Co-transfection: polyQHtt + P42 or empty vector | Htt aggregation | Immunostaining; filter retardation assays | Rescue = 80 % |
P42TAT (Arribat et al., 2014) [61] | Cell culture | HeLa cells (hHtt171aa-136Q) | Co-transfection: polyQHtt + P42TAT or empty vector | Htt aggregation | Immunostaining; filter retardation assays | Rescue = 80 % |
P42TAT-TAMRA provided in culture cell medium | Htt aggregation | Immunostaining; filter retardation assays | Rescue = 90 % (P42TAT concentration dependent) | |||
P42 (Arribat et al., 2013) [55] | HD Drosophila |
MS-1096-Gal4; UAS-HA-hHtt171aa-138Q | Genetic cross: UAS-P42 vs UAS-LacZ (neutral control) | Htt aggregation | Immunostaining; filter retardation assays (L3 larval salivary glands) | Rescue = 80 % |
GMR-Gal4; UAS- hHttex1-93Q | Genetic cross: UAS-P42 vs UAS- GFP (neutral control) | Eye toxicity | Phenotypical comparative analysis (eyes of adult flies) | Rescue = 100 % | ||
OK6-Gal4/UAS-NPY-GFP; UAS-hHtt548aa-128Q | Genetic cross: UAS-P42 vs UAS-LacZ (neutral control) | Larval locomotion | Locomotion (mm/min) | Rescue close to 100 % | ||
OK6-Gal4/UAS-NPY-GFP; UAS-hHtt548aa-128Q | Genetic cross: UAS-P42 vs UAS-LacZ (neutral control) | Axonal transport | Immunostaining and live imaging to quantify different parameters of Neuropeptide Y vesicles trafficking in larval motoneurons. | Recovery of the different parameters: Number of vesicles: 28 %; % of pausing: 21 %; velocity: 31 % | ||
ELAV-Gal4; UAS-hHtt548aa-128Q | Genetic cross: UAS-P42 vs UAS-LacZ (neutral control) | Adult survival | Mean, median, and maximal survival (days) | Increased median survival (day 18 to 26); no effect on mean and maximal survival | ||
P42TAT (Arribat et al., 2014) [61] | R6/2 mice | hHttex1-140Q | Transmucosal daily administration of P42TAT with Aonys® water-in-oil microemulsion (600 μg/ml/kg) vs empty microemulsion at pre-symptomatic (wk2 to wk11) R6/2 and Wt mice. | Motor performance | Latency to fall from accelerating rotarod (weeks 6, 8, and 10) | Significant amelioration compared to placebo-treated R6/2 mice |
Clasping test | Frequency and duration of the foot-clasping posture (twice a week at wk 7, 9, and 11) | Complete rescue vs placebo-treated R6/2 and to wt mice | ||||
Weight loss | Weight measure between wk8 and wk10 | Significant reversion of body weight loss curve vs placebo-treated mice | ||||
Intranuclear brain aggregates; astrogliosis | Immunostaining: number and size of cortical and striatal intranuclear aggregates; cortical and striatal astrocyte number | Significant 50 % reduction of cortical and striatal aggregates; non significant reduction of the astrogliosis | ||||
Cerebral atrophy | Lateral ventricle enlargement | Rescue = 30 % |