Background
Methods
Aims
Study design, setting and participants
Covariate | n(w)a | %(w)a | SE |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | |||
Male | 309 | 45.1 | 1.9 |
Female | 377 | 54.9 | 1.9 |
Race | |||
White | 455 | 66.3 | 1.7 |
Coloured | 129 | 18.9 | 1.5 |
Black | 83 | 12.1 | 1.1 |
Indian | 18 | 2.7 | 0.5 |
Materials and measures
Childhood adversity
Recent stressful experiences
Depression occurring in the past year
Ethical issues
Data analysis
Results
Prevalence estimates of socio-demographic variables
Bivariate correlates of 12-month depressive symptoms
prevalence | Chi-square test | Odds Ratioe | PARPe | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictor | n(w) | %(w)a | SE | %(w)b | SE | %(w)c | SE | X2 | df | P-valued | OR | 95%- | 95%+ | %(w) |
Parental psychopathology | 308 | 47.6 | 1.9 | 44.7 | 2.1 | 60.8 | 4.4 | 9.03 | 1 |
0.002
|
2.1
| 1.3 | 3.2 |
26.7
|
Physical abuse | 134 | 20.4 | 1.5 | 19.1 | 1.7 | 25.5 | 4.0 | 2.22 | 1 | 0.139 | 1.8 | 1.1 | 3.1 | 9.3 |
Emotional abuse | 240 | 37.2 | 1.8 | 31.9 | 2.0 | 57.0 | 4.5 | 23.63 | 1 |
<0.001
|
3.2
| 2.0 | 5.0 |
34.3
|
Sexual abuse | 28 | 4.4 | 0.7 | 3.3 | 0.7 | 9.0 | 2.4 | 7.06 | 1 |
0.006
|
3.0
| 1.3 | 7.1 |
5.2
|
Neglect | 84 | 12.9 | 1.3 | 10.6 | 1.3 | 22.6 | 3.8 | 11.39 | 1 |
0.001
|
3.4
| 1.9 | 6.0 |
13.0
|
Bullying victimization | 324 | 50.0 | 1.9 | 45.2 | 2.1 | 70.7 | 4.1 | 22.36 | 1 |
<0.001
|
3.0
| 1.9 | 4.8 |
41.3
|
Dating violence | 102 | 15.7 | 1.3 | 13.8 | 1.4 | 24.6 | 3.8 | 7.75 | 1 |
0.005
|
1.9
| 1.2 | 3.3 |
9.8
|
Any adverse experience | 484 | 79.4 | 1.6 | 76.4 | 1.8 | 93.6 | 2.4 | 14.52 | 1 |
<0.001
|
4.6
| 2.0 | 10.4 |
67.9
|
No adverse experience | 126 | 20.6 | 1.6 | 23.6 | 1.8 | 6.4 | 2.4 | – | – | – | (ref) | (ref) | (ref) | (ref) |
Exactly one adverse experience | 165 | 27.1 | 1.7 | 28.5 | 1.9 | 23.4 | 3.9 | – | – | – |
2.9
| 1.2 | 7.0 |
14.1
|
Exactly two adverse experiences | 126 | 20.6 | 1.6 | 21.2 | 1.8 | 18.5 | 3.6 | – | – | – |
3.5
| 1.4 | 9.0 |
12.1
|
Three or more adverse experiences | 194 | 31.7 | 1.8 | 26.7 | 1.9 | 51.7 | 4.6 | 28.98 | 3 |
<0.001
|
8.0
| 3.4 | 18.8 |
42.3
|
Multivariable correlates of 12-month depression
prevalence | Chi-square test | Odds Ratioe | PARPe | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictor | n(w) | %(w)a | SE | %(w)b | SE | %(w)c | SE | X2 | df | P-valued | OR | 95%- | 95%+ | %(w) |
A life-threatening illness or injury of a very close friend or family member | 161 | 24.2 | 1.6 | 24.7 | 1.8 | 22.5 | 3.7 | 0.24 | 1 | 0.622 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 1.4 | −3.3 |
Death of a close friend or family member | 179 | 26.8 | 1.6 | 28.1 | 1.9 | 21.5 | 3.7 | 1.89 | 1 | 0.165 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 1.2 | −6.2 |
Break-up with a romantic partner | 202 | 30.5 | 1.7 | 29.0 | 1.9 | 37.7 | 4.4 | 3.11 | 1 | 0.074 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 2.3 | 10.1 |
You discovered that a romantic partner cheated on you | 73 | 11.0 | 1.2 | 9.6 | 1.2 | 19.7 | 3.6 | 8.97 | 1 |
0.003
|
2.4
| 1.3 | 4.3 |
9.1
|
Serious betrayal by someone else close to you | 141 | 21.2 | 1.5 | 18.7 | 1.6 | 34.7 | 4.2 | 13.43 | 1 |
<0.001
|
2.1
| 1.3 | 3.4 |
15.1
|
Serious ongoing arguments or break-ups with some other close friend or family member | 136 | 20.6 | 1.5 | 17.1 | 1.6 | 35.2 | 4.3 | 17.85 | 1 |
<0.001
|
2.5
| 1.6 | 4.1 |
18.0
|
Academic stress | 525 | 78.6 | 1.5 | 76.4 | 1.8 | 88.2 | 2.9 | 7.12 | 1 |
0.007
|
2.1
| 1.1 | 3.9 |
39.6
|
Sexual/Gender Identity Crisis | 47 | 7.0 | 1.0 | 6.0 | 1.0 | 14.0 | 3.1 | 8.29 | 1 |
0.004
|
3.3
| 1.7 | 6.7 |
7.6
|
Hospitalization | 65 | 9.8 | 1.1 | 9.2 | 1.2 | 14.6 | 3.2 | 2.83 | 1 | 0.092 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 3.2 | 4.7 |
You were involved in a life-threatening accident | 28 | 4.2 | 0.8 | 4.2 | 0.8 | 4.1 | 1.9 | 0.01 | 1 | 0.941 | 1.1 | 0.4 | 3.1 | 0.2 |
You were seriously physically assaulted | 25 | 3.7 | 0.7 | 3.3 | 0.8 | 4.5 | 2.1 | 0.38 | 1 | 0.569 | 2.2 | 0.7 | 6.3 | 2.0 |
You were sexually assaulted or raped | 3 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.8 | f | – | 0.126 | 2.0 | 0.2 | 25.0 | 0.5 |
You had trouble with the police | 14 | 2.2 | 0.6 | 2.2 | 0.6 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.52 | – | 0.497 | 1.1 | 0.2 | 6.5 | 0.2 |
You spent time in jail | 2 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 | – | – | f | – | 1.000 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 62.7 | 0.1 |
Serious legal problem | 9 | 1.4 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 0.5 | – | – | f | – | 0.612 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 8.7 | −0.5 |
You had a pregnancy | 2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | – | 1.6 | 1.1 | f | – |
0.032
| 14.5 | 0.3 | 699.7 | 1.0 | |
You were diagnosed with a sexually transmitted infection | 2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 1.2 | 1.1 | f | – | 0.323 | 8.6 | 0.5 | 144.5 | 0.7 |
You were diagnosed with HIV | 0 | 0.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Any other recent experience | 70 | 10.6 | 1.2 | 8.7 | 1.2 | 17.9 | 3.5 | 7.90 | 1 |
0.005
|
2.4
| 1.3 | 4.4 |
8.8
|
Any recent experience | 552 | 90.7 | 1.2 | 89.2 | 1.4 | 96.1 | 1.8 | 4.34 | 1 |
0.037
| 2.4 | 0.9 | 6.6 | 49.6 |
No recent experience | 57 | 9.3 | 1.2 | 10.8 | 1.4 | 3.9 | 1.8 | – | – | – | (ref) | (ref) | (ref) | (ref) |
Exactly one recent experience | 133 | 21.9 | 1.6 | 23.5 | 1.8 | 13.1 | 3.0 | – | – | – | 1.2 | 0.4 | 3.9 | 2.4 |
Exactly two recent experiences | 147 | 24.2 | 1.7 | 24.4 | 1.9 | 25.0 | 4.1 | – | – | – | 2.3 | 0.8 | 6.7 | 12.4 |
Three or more recent experiences | 271 | 44.6 | 1.9 | 41.3 | 2.1 | 57.9 | 4.6 | 13.00 | 3 |
0.004
|
3.1
| 1.1 | 8.8 |
35.1
|
MODEL 1 | MODEL 2 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictor | OR | 95%- | 95%+ | PARP | P-valuea | OR | 95%- | 95%+ | PARP | P-valuea |
A life-threatening illness or injury of a very close friend or family member | 1.0 | 0.5 | 1.8 | −0.6 | 0.913 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 1.7 | −2.4 | 0.688 |
Death of a close friend or family member | 0.7 | 0.4 | 1.3 | −6.5 | 0.267 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 1.6 | −3.2 | 0.588 |
Break-up with a romantic partner | 1.0 | 0.6 | 1.8 | 0.2 | 0.974 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 2.0 | 1.7 | 0.819 |
You discovered that a romantic partner cheated on you |
2.1
| 1.0 | 4.3 |
7.7
| 0.048 | 1.9 | 0.8 | 4.2 | 5.9 | 0.137 |
Serious betrayal by someone else close to you | 1.2 | 0.7 | 2.2 | 4.2 | 0.499 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 1.7 | −2.1 | 0.731 |
Serious ongoing arguments or break-ups with some other close friend or family member |
2.0
| 1.1 | 3.6 |
13.0
| 0.023 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 3.3 | 9.2 | 0.113 |
Academic stress | 1.5 | 0.8 | 3.1 | 24.3 | 0.235 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 2.8 | 14.3 | 0.493 |
Sexual/Gender Identity Crisis |
3.0
| 1.3 | 6.8 |
6.9
| 0.008 | 2.0 | 0.7 | 5.2 | 3.4 | 0.168 |
Hospitalization | 1.7 | 0.8 | 3.4 | 4.3 | 0.154 | 2.0 | 0.9 | 4.5 | 5.1 | 0.076 |
Any other stressful event | 2.0 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 6.0 | 0.061 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 3.4 | 3.1 | 0.356 |
Exactly two recent stressful experiences | 1.4 | 0.7 | 3.0 | 6.1 | 0.359 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 2.9 | 4.2 | 0.541 |
Three or more recent stressful experiences | 1.0 | 0.4 | 2.9 | 0.3 | 0.987 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 2.6 | −6.2 | 0.764 |
Parental psychopathology |
2.4
| 1.2 | 4.8 |
27.1
| 0.016 | |||||
Physical abuse | 0.8 | 0.4 | 1.7 | −3.8 | 0.502 | |||||
Emotional abuse |
3.3
| 1.5 | 7.1 | 31.2 | 0.003 | |||||
Sexual abuse | 0.8 | 0.2 | 2.8 | −0.8 | 0.762 | |||||
Neglect |
3.1
| 1.4 | 7.1 |
10.6
| 0.006 | |||||
Bullying victimization |
3.2
| 1.6 | 6.2 |
37.4
| 0.001 | |||||
Dating violence |
2.5
| 1.1 | 5.5 |
11.0
| 0.028 | |||||
Exactly two childhood adverse experiences | 0.5 | 0.2 | 1.4 | −10.3 | 0.194 | |||||
Three or more childhood adverse experiences | 0.3 | 0.1 | 1.3 | −35.8 | 0.116 |