Introduction
B-cell ontogeny
B-cell function
Antigen presentation
Antibody production
Immunosuppression
Pre-clinical studies of the role of B cells in cancer
Pre-malignancy models
Established cancer models
Tumour infiltrating B lymphocytes in human lung cancer
Study | Markers | Tumour classification | Methods | No. of cases | Follow-up (months) | Outcome and prognostic significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pelletier et al. [47] | CD20 | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Adeno-squamous and Large Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 113 | 120 | CD20 + B cell presence in the peri-tumoural region was positively prognostic (p = 0.04); this association was even stronger in non-squamous cell carcinomas (p < 0.001) |
Al-Shibli et al. [46] | CD20 | Stage I–IIIa, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma and Broncho-alveolar Carcinoma | IHC | 335 | 60 | Epithelial and stromal CD20 + B cell presence (p = 0.023 and p < 0.001, respectively) correlated with improved disease-specific survival |
Kinoshita et al. [45] | CD20 | Stage I or III, Adenocarcinoma or non-adenocarcinomas | IHC | 218 | 120 | Multivariate analyses identified low accumulation of CD20 + B cells as an independent worse prognostic risk factor in adenocarcinomas (HR; 1.71, p = 0.004 for recurrence free survival). A high accumulation of CD20 + B cells was a favourable prognostic factor in non-smokers with adenocarcinoma (hazard ratio; 0.22, p = 0.03 for overall survival, p = 0.009 for recurrence free survival) |
Banat et al. [51] | CD20 | Stage I–III, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Adeno-squamous and Small Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 70 | ND | Stage dependent changes were documented, whereby CD20 + B cell number was elevated in NSCLC tissue and higher in stage III tumours relative to stage I tumours, this was independent of tumour size and type. This group also showed a considerably higher number of CD20 + cells in N0 tumours compared with N1 + 2 samples. A higher density of MUM-1 positive plasma cells was found in NSCLC tissue compared with healthy control lungs. This finding bore no correlation with stage, size, histology or nodal status |
Hernandez-Prieto et al. [42] | CD20 CD79 | Stage I or II, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Adeno-squamous and Large Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 84 | 24 | A weak presence of CD20 + B cells was found in the tumour microenvironment of the high-risk relapse subgroup of stage I/II NSCLC |
Eerola et al. [35] | CD20 | Stage I–III, Large Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 38 | 60 | Higher intra-tumoural CD20 + B cell infiltration correlated with significantly higher survival than those with low numbers of B cells; p = 0.05 |
Schalper et al. [48] | CD20 | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma | IF | 202 (YTMA79) | 60 | Higher CD20 + B cell number associated with significantly longer overall survival, HR = 0.523, p = 0.004 |
Schalper et al. [48] | CD20 | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma | IF | 350 (YTMA140) | 60 | Increased CD20 + B cell number was not associated with improved NSCLC overall survival, HR = 0.887, p = 0.447 |
Hald et al. [52] | CD20 | Stage I–IIIa, Adenocarcinoma, Sqaumous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 371 | 60 | Epithelial and Stromal CD20 expression was not deemed a prognostic factor for survival in NSCLC, p = 0.059 |
Suzuki et al. [51] | CD20 | Stage Ia or Ib Adenocarcinoma | IHC | 455 | 60 | Tumoural and Stromal CD20 + B cell expression had no significant prognostic value for patients with stage I Adenocarcinoma, p = 0.417 and p = 0.389, respectively |
Kurebayashi et al. [54] | CD20 | Stage I–IIIa, Adenocarcinoma only | IHC | 111 | 85 | The infiltration of inter-follicular B cells in cancer stroma was significantly associated with a poorer prognosis when analysed for all adenocarcinoma cases and stage I cases alone; p < 0.001 for stage I and all adenocarcinoma cases |
Germain et al. [44] | CD20 | Stage I to II, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 74 | 60 | The size and density of B cell follicles along with the size and density of germinal centres and the number of antibody-producing plasma cells in tumour-associated TLS positively correlated with better clinical outcome in NSCLC in both early and advanced stage; for overall survival, HR 11, p = 0.02 |
Gottlin et al. [8] | BCL-6, CD21-Germinal Centre B cell Markers | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma and Broncho-alveolar Carcinoma | IHC | 91 | 34 | NSCLC specimens have displayed evidence of immune response to antigen stimulation; germinal centres were seen within the tumour and at the tumour margin; moreover, early stage I NSCLC tumours displayed a higher prevalence of intra-tumoral germinal centre formation compared with higher stage tumours (II–IV); p < 0.02 |
Al-Shibli et al. [46] | CD138 | Stage I–IIIa, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 191 | 192 | Epithelial and Stromal CD138 + cell infiltration showed no significant correlation with Disease-free survival, p = 0.847. |
Hald et al. [52] | CD138 | Stage I–IIIa, Adenocarcinoma, Sqaumous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma. | IHC | 371 | 60 | Epithelial and Stromal CD138 + cell infiltration did not correlate with survival in NSCLC, p = 0.292 |
Kurebayashiet al. [54] | CD138 p63 | Stage I–IIIa, Adenocarcinoma only | IHC | 111 | 85 | The infiltration of inter-follicular/para-follicular plasma cells in cancer stroma was significantly associated with poorer prognosis when analysed for all cases of lung ADC and for stage I cases alone (p < 0.001). The plasma cell infiltration is the independent negative prognostic factor in Grade1/2 papillary/acinar ADC (p = 0.006) |
Lohr et al. [56] | CD138 | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 355 | 58.7 | CD138 expression associated with increased survival across all cases of NSCLC (HR = 0.74, p = 0.041) but particularly for adenocarcinoma (HR = 0.54, p = 0.004) |
Lohr et al. [56] | Ig-kappa-C | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma | IHC | 355 | 58.7 | Immunoglobulin kappa C (IGKC) expression was independently associated with longer survival (HR = 0.72, p = 0.035) with a stronger pre-dilection for the adenocarcinoma subtype (HR = 0.57, p = 0.013), for recurrence-free survival, p = 0.044. IGKC expression correlated strongly with CD138 expression (p < 0.0001) |
Fujimoto et al. [55] | IgG-4 | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma, Adeno-squamous and Sarcomatoid Carcinoma | IHC | 294 | 60 | In stage I NSCLC, IgG4 + plasma cell stromal infiltration correlated with favourable prognosis (p = 0.04); overall survival, p = 0.0409 for SCC. p < 0.0001 for Adenocarcinoma |
Schmidt et al. [43] | Ig-kappa-C | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma | qRT-PCR Microarray | 196 | 120 | Gene-expression profiles were analysed in various types of human solid cancers, IGKC expression consistently associated with longer survival in NSCLC on uni- and multivariate analyses (p < 0.001 and p = 0.032, respectively); moreover, the source of IGKC expression was exclusively the tumour-infiltrating plasma cell. For Adenocarcinoma, overall survival, p = 0.002. |
Zhang et al. [68] | CD19+ CD5+ Stat3+ | Lung and Prostate Cancer | IF IHC | 9 | ND | In lung tumour lymph nodes, p-STAT3 expression and CD5 positivity in CD19 + B cells correlated. However, the limited number of patient specimens failed to support the evidence that CD19 + CD5 + B cells were a negative prognostic factor for patient survival |
Hernandez-Prieto et al. [39] | 50-gene signature (humoural immune genes) | Stage I or II, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Adeno-squamous and Large Cell Carcinoma | Microarray | 162 | 24 | Whole genome microarray data from resected NSCLC specimens permitted molecular classification, whereby three clusters were identified, one of which had significantly higher recurrence free survival (RFS); the majority of the expressed genes were related to B cell immune response (B cell lineage genes such as Ig molecules, B cell receptor CD79a, CD19 lineage marker and B cell specific transcriptional co-activator POU2AF1 and marginal zone B1 cells) and these were over-expressed in the low risk sub-group. This gene signature and CD20 positivity were predictors of RFS; p < 0.0001 and p < 0.05, respectively |
Schmidt et al. [43] | 60-gene signature (humoural immune genes) | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma | qRT-PCR Microarray | 196 | 120 | The 60-gene signature was significantly associated with longer survival of NSCLC, HR = 0.786, p < 0.001. This prognostic relevance was restricted to Adenocarcinoma, p = 0.002 |
Iglesia et al. [37] | 60-gene signature (humoural immune genes) | Stage I to IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma | mRNA- sequencing | 504 | ND | Expression of the 60-gene signature predicted improved overall survival in Adenocarcinoma, HR = 0.71, p = 0.00078 |
Mount et al. [38] | 24-gene signature (humoural immune genes) | Stage I–III, Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Microarray | 130 | ND | B-cell related genes were predominantly found in early stage Squamous Cell Carcinomas. For stage I–II overall survival, p < 0.001 |
Liu et al. [39] | B-cell specific signatures | Adenocarcinoma and Squamous Cell Carcinoma (staging unavailable) | mRNA sequencing | 980 | ND | Deconvolution of bulk gene-expression data from a NSCLC cohort revealed that adenocarcinomas lacking memory B cell infiltration were associated with a poor prognosis at early clinical stage and, moreover, in squamous cell carcinomas the expression of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells was associated with a favourable prognosis |
Faruki et al. [40] | B-cell specific signatures | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma | mRNA sequencing or Microarray | 933 | ND | B cell infiltration was associated with a better prognosis in squamoid subtypes relative to the other subtypes but this was still not significant; HR = 0.747, p = 0.062. |
Gentles et al. [41] | B-cell specific signatures | Stage I–IV, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Large Cell Carcinoma, Small Cell Lung Carcinoma. | mRNA sequencing or Microarray | 1336 | 185 | B cell presence (memory, naive and plasma) denoted favourable outcomes for Adenocarcinoma, whereas memory and plasma cell presence denoted adverse outcome in Squamous Cell and Large Cell Carcinoma, respectively |
B-cell functionality: human NSCLC
Antibody specificity and antigen presentation
Immunosuppression
Phenotype | Mechanism of suppression | Disease process | Author |
---|---|---|---|
CD19 + CD24hi CD38hi (Immature subtype) | IL-10, PD-L1 | SLE | Blair et al. [61] |
CD1d | SLE | Bosma et al. [62] | |
IL-10, TGF-P, CD40/CD40L | Hepatocellular carcinoma | Shao et al. [63] | |
TGF-P | Breast cancer, Gastric cancer | ||
IL-10 | Non-small cell lung cancer, Oesophageal cancer, Ovarian cancer | ||
CD19 + CD5+ | IL-10, STAT3 | Lung, Prostate cancer | Zhang et al. [68] |
IL-10, TGF-P | Breast cancer | Lee-Chang et al. [69] | |
CD19 + CD5 + CD1dhi | IL-10 | Chronic inflammation within gut-associated lymphoid tissue | |
CD19 + CD35+ | IL-35 | Pancreatic Cancer | |
CD19 + CD24hi CD27 + (B10 cells) | IL-10 | SLE, Rheumatoid arthritis, primary Sjogren’s Syndrome, Multiple sclerosis, Autoimmune vesiculobullous skin disease | Iwata et al. [74] |
CD19 + CD38 + CD1d + IgM + CD147 + (GrB + B cells) | IL-10, GranzymeB | Breast, Ovarian, Cervical, Colorectal, Prostatic carcinomas | Lindner et al. [75] |
CD19 + CD25hi CD71hi CD73lo (Br1 subtype) | IL-10, IgG4 | Human model of allergic inflammation in response to bee venom antigen | van de Veen et al. [76] |
CD19 + CD24hi CD27int CD38hi (Plasmablast subtype) | IL-10 | Healthy human donor peripheral blood | Matsumoto et al. [77] |
CD39 + CD73+ | Adenosine | Healthy human donor peripheral blood | Saze et al. [78] |
(iBreg subtype) | TGF-P, IDO | Healthy human donor peripheral blood | Nouel et al. [80] |
CD19 + TIM-1+ | IL-10 | HIV-1 Infection | Liu et al. [79] |