Background
Methods
Study design and setting
Clinical stage | Severity | Description |
---|---|---|
1 | Mild | Asymptomatic - Only RT-PCR test positive |
2 | Symptomatic, but no pneumonia - Upper respiratory tract (URT) symptoms (e.g., pharyngeal congestion, sore throat, cough, or fever) - Other symptoms, like vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, myalgia, loss of smell/taste | |
3 | Moderate | Symptomatic, pneumonia, but no hypoxemia |
4 | Severe | Symptomatic, pneumonia, requiring supplemental oxygen OR New requirement of supplemental oxygen or increased requirement from baseline without need for non-invasive or invasive ventilation |
5 | Critical | Critically Ill with multiorgan involvement OR New or increased need for non-invasive or invasive ventilation, including high flow nasal cannula |
Analysis of PCT
Statistical analysis
Characteristics | Overall n (%) | First level n (%) | Second level n (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Total | 319 (100.0) | 276 (100.0) | 237 (100.0) |
Age, years: Mean (SD) | 56 (13.6) | 54.8 (13.7) | 55.0 (13.7) |
Gender: Female | 111 (34.8) | 102 (37.0) | 84 (35.4) |
Race | |||
Malay | 168 (52.7) | 147 (53.3) | 122 (51.5) |
Chinese | 68 (21.3) | 54 (19.6) | 46 (19.4) |
Indian | 52 (16.3) | 48 (17.4) | 44 (18.6) |
Others | 31 (9.7) | 27 (9.8) | 25 (10.5) |
Comorbidities profile | |||
Hypertension: Yes | 179 (56.1) | 158 (57.2) | 135 (57.0) |
Chronic cardiac disease: Yes | 64 (20.1) | 54 (19.6) | 46 (19.4) |
Chronic pulmonary disease: Yes | 10 (3.1) | 8 (2.9) | 7 (3.0) |
Asthma: Yes | 14 (4.4) | 13 (4.7) | 10 (4.2) |
Diabetes mellitus: Yes | 147 (46.1) | 128 (46.4) | 110 (46.4) |
Pre-existing renal disease: Yes | 73 (22.9) | 56 (20.3) | 46 (19.4) |
Chronic liver disease: Yes | 3 (0.9) | 2 (0.7) | 2 (0.8) |
Dementia: Yes | 3 (0.9) | 3 (1.1) | 2 (0.8) |
Chronic neurological conditions: Yes | 16 (5.0) | 13 (4.7) | 10 (4.2) |
Connective tissue disease: Yes | 7 (2.2) | 7 (2.5) | 5 (2.1) |
HIV/AIDS: Yes | 2 (0.6) | 1 (0.4) | 1 (0.4) |
Malignancy: Yes | 11 (3.4) | 9 (3.3) | 8 (3.4) |
Current smoking: Yes | 9 (2.8) | 5 (1.8) | 4 (1.7) |
Obesity: Yes | 17 (5.3) | 17 (6.2) | 16 (6.8) |
Others: Yes | 81 (25.4) | 67 (24.3) | 51 (21.5) |
COVID-19 severity when procalcitonin first sent | |||
Category 4 | 254 (79.6) | 217 (78.6) | 181 (76.4) |
Category 5 | 65 (20.4) | 59 (21.4) | 56 (23.6) |
4C mortality score | |||
0–3 (low-risk in-hospital mortality) | 16 (5.0) | 15 (5.4) | 13 (5.5) |
4–8 (intermediate-risk in-hospital mortality) | 117 (36.7) | 105 (38.0) | 87 (36.7) |
9–14 (high-risk in-hospital mortality) | 145 (45.5) | 124 (44.9) | 107 (45.1) |
15–21 (very high-risk in-hospital mortality) | 41 (12.8) | 32 (11.6) | 30 (12.7) |
Steroid use: Yes | 297 (93.1) | 257 (93.1) | 219 (92.4) |
Bloodstream infection: Yes | 35 (11.0) | 28 (13.0) | 25 (13.4) |
Clinical outcomes | |||
ICU admission: Yes | 143 (44.8) | 129 (46.7) | 120 (50.6) |
NIV use: Yes | 65 (20.4) | 60 (21.7) | 57 (24.1) |
Duration of NIV use, days, median (IQR) | 3 (1.8, 5.3) | 3 (1.8, 5.3) | 3 (1, 5) |
Mechanical ventilation: Yes | 101 (31.7) | 89 (32.2) | 85 (35.9) |
Duration of mechanical ventilation use, days, median (IQR) | 6 (4, 12) | 7 (4, 12) | 7 (4, 12) |
Organizing pneumonia | |||
Yes | 135 (42.3) | 118 (42.8) | 102 (43.0) |
No | 26 (8.2) | 21 (7.6) | 19 (8.0) |
CT scan not done | 158 (49.5) | 137 (49.6) | 116 (48.9) |
Thrombotic event: Yes | 83 (26.0) | 69 (25.0) | 62 (26.2) |
All-cause mortality: Yes | 71 (22.3) | 59 (21.4) | 55 (23.2) |
Due to severe COVID-19 pneumonia | 48 (67.6) | 43 (72.9) | 39 (70.9) |
Due to thrombotic event | 8 (11.3) | 7 (16.3) | 7 (17.9) |
Due to comorbid | 7 (9.8) | 4 (9.3) | 4 (10.3) |
Due to bacterial infections | 8 (11.3) | 5 (11.6) | 5 (12.8) |
Bacteremia | 3 (4.2) | 1 (2.3) | 1 (2.6) |
Intra-abdominal infection | 1 (1.4) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Necrotizing fasciitis | 1 (1.4) | 1 (2.3) | 1 (2.6) |
Non-specified site | 1 (1.4) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Non-bacteremia | 5 (7.0) | 4 (9.3) | 4 (10.3) |
Pulmonary infection | 2 (2.8) | 1 (2.3) | 1 (2.6) |
Intra-abdominal infection | 1 (1.4) | 1 (2.3) | 1 (2.6) |
Non-specified site | 2 (2.8) | 2 (4.7) | 2 (5.1) |
Results
Determination of the optimal cut-point
Cut-point and indexes | All-cause mortality | Mechanical ventilation | Thrombotic events | ICU admission | Bacterial infection culture |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of patients | 276 | 276 | 276 | 276 | 216 |
Positive cases | 59 | 89 | 69 | 129 | 28 |
Negative cases | 217 | 187 | 207 | 147 | 188 |
AUC | 0.7741 | 0.7773 | 0.6666 | 0.7223 | 0.6444 |
Optimal cut-point (ng/mL) | 0.20 | 0.33 | 1.21 | 0.09 | 1.2 |
Accuracy | 0.6703 | 0.7391 | 0.7536 | 0.6848 | 0.7454 |
Sensitivity | 0.8136 | 0.6742 | 0.4203 | 0.7442 | 0.5357 |
Specificity | 0.6313 | 0.7701 | 0.8647 | 0.6327 | 0.7766 |
Precision | 0.3750 | 0.5825 | 0.5088 | 0.6400 | 0.2632 |
TP | 48 | 60 | 29 | 96 | 15 |
FN | 11 | 29 | 40 | 33 | 13 |
FP | 54 | 43 | 28 | 43 | 42 |
TN | 93 | 144 | 179 | 144 | 146 |
Cut-point and Indexes | All-cause mortality | Mechanical ventilation | Thrombotic events | ICU admission | Bacterial infection culture |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of patients | 237 | 237 | 237 | 237 | 186 |
Positive cases | 55 | 85 | 62 | 120 | 25 |
Negative cases | 182 | 152 | 175 | 117 | 161 |
AUC | 0.7812 | 0.7676 | 0.6711 | 0.7365 | 0.6465 |
Optimal cut-point (ng/mL) | 0.20 | 0.21 | 1.21 | 0.07 | 1.25 |
Accuracy | 0.6667 | 0.7046 | 0.7468 | 0.7046 | 0.7419 |
Sensitivity | 0.8364 | 0.7528 | 0.4355 | 0.8333 | 0.5600 |
Specificity | 0.6154 | 0.6776 | 0.8571 | 0.5726 | 0.7702 |
Precision | 0.3966 | 0.5663 | 0.5192 | 0.6667 | 0.2745 |
TP | 46 | 64 | 27 | 100 | 14 |
FN | 9 | 21 | 35 | 20 | 11 |
FP | 70 | 49 | 25 | 50 | 37 |
TN | 112 | 103 | 150 | 67 | 124 |
Propensity scores matching analysis
Variables | Category | PCT < 0.2 (ng/mL) (n = 121) | PCT ≥ 0.2 (ng/mL) (n = 116) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Demographics | ||||
Gender | Female | 42 (34.7) | 42 (36.2) | 0.8097 |
Age (years) | Mean (SD) | 52.8 (12.6) | 57.3 (14.4) | 0.0122 |
Age groups (years) | < 50 | 45 (37.2) | 33 (28.4) | 0.0945 |
50–59 | 38 (31.4) | 28 (24.1) | ||
60–60 | 23 (19.0) | 34 (29.3) | ||
≥ 70 | 15 (12.4) | 21 (18.1) | ||
Ethnicity | Malay | 60 (62.3) | 62 (53.4) | 0.0675 |
Chinese | 22 (18.2) | 24 (20.7) | ||
Indian | 20 (16.5) | 24 (20.7) | ||
Others | 19 (15.7) | 6 (5.2) | ||
Clinical characteristics and baseline laboratory | ||||
Severity of disease | Category 4 | 111 (91.7) | 70 (60.3) | < 0.0001 |
Category 5 | 10 (8.3) | 46 (39.7) | ||
Days of illness | Mean (SD) | 6.5 (3.0) | 5.3 (3.1) | 0.0036 |
SPO2 under RA (%) | < 92% | 98 (81.0) | 111 (95.7) | 0.0005 |
≥ 92% | 23 (19.0) | 5 (4.3) | ||
RR, bpm | < 20 | 13 (10.7) | 14 (12.1) | 0.2520 |
20–29 | 93 (76.9) | 79 (68.1) | ||
≥ 30 | 15 (12.4) | 23 (19.8) | ||
GCS | < 15 | 11 (9.1) | 50 (43.1) | < 0.0001 |
15 | 110 (90.9) | 66 (56.9) | ||
Urea, mmol/dL | < 7 | 87 (71.9) | 31 (26.7) | < 0.0001 |
7–14 | 29 (24.0) | 31 (26.7) | ||
> 14 | 5 (4.1) | 54 (46.6) | ||
CRP, mg/dL | < 5 | 49 (40.5) | 8 (6.9) | < 0.0001 |
5–9.9 | 31 (25.6) | 69 (59.5) | ||
≥ 10 | 41 (33.9) | 39 (33.6) | ||
WBC (× 1012/L) | Mean (SD) | 8.56 (3.88) | 10.90 (5.80) | 0.0003 |
ANC (× 109/L) | Mean (SD) | 6.75 (3.81) | 9.26 (5.53) | < 0.0001 |
Comorbidity profile | ||||
No. of comorbidity | 0 | 67 (55.4) | 33 (28.4) | < 0.0001 |
1 | 42 (34.7) | 33 (28.4) | ||
≥ 2 | 12 (9.9) | 50 (43.1) | ||
Hypertension | Yes | 56 (46.3) | 79 (68.1) | 0.0007 |
Chronic cardiac disease (excluding HPT) | Yes | 14 (11.6) | 32 (27.6) | 0.0018 |
Asthma | Yes | 6 (5.0) | 4 (3.4) | 0.7491 |
Chronic pulmonary disease (excluding asthma) | Yes | 3 (2.5) | 4 (3.4) | 0.7174 |
Diabetes Mellitus | Yes | 45 (37.2) | 65 (56.0) | 0.0036 |
Pre-existing renal disease | Yes | 5 (4.1) | 41 (35.3) | < 0.0001 |
Stage 2 | 2 (40.0) | 0 | ||
Stage 3 | 0 | 6(14.6) | ||
Stage 4 | 2 (40.0) | 8 (19.5) | ||
Stage 5 | 1 (20.0) | 27 (65.9) | ||
HIV/AIDS | Yes | 1 | 0 | n.a |
Malignancy | Yes | 1 (0.8) | 7 (6.0) | 0.0327 |
Smoking | Yes, current | 1 (0.8) | 3 (2.6) | n.a |
Obesity (> 30 kg/m2) | Yes | 7 (5.8) | 9 (7.8) | 0.5449 |
Chronic liver disease | Yes | 0 | 2 | n.a |
Dementia | Yes | 0 | 2 | n.a |
Chronic neurological disease | Yes | 2 (1.7) | 8 (6.9) | 0.0555 |
Connective tissue disease | Yes | 2 (1.7) | 3 (2.6) | 0.6783 |
Clinical outcomes | Category | PCT level (ng/mL) | OR (95% CI) | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PCT < 0.2 (n = 121) | PCT ≥ 0.2 (n = 116) | ||||
Procalcitonin level | Mean (SD) | 0.0674 (0.0331) | 6.002 (11.556) | n.a | < 0.0001 |
All-cause mortality | Yes | 9 (7.4) | 46 (39.7) | 8.178 (3.770–17.738) | < 0.0001 |
No | 112 (92.6) | 70 (60.3) | |||
Mechanical ventilation | Yes | 21 (17.4) | 64 (55.2) | 5.861 (3.229–10.637) | < 0.0001 |
No | 100 (82.6) | 52 (44.8) | |||
Non-invasive ventilation | Yes | 18 (14.9) | 39 (33.6) | 2.898 (1.541–5.541) | 0.0010 |
No | 103 (85.1) | 77 (66.4) | |||
ICU admission | Yes | 41 (33.9) | 79 (68.1) | 4.166 (2.422–7.166) | < 0.0001 |
No | 80 (66.1) | 37 (31.9) | |||
Thrombotic events | Yes | 23 (19.0) | 39 (33.6) | 2.158 (1.190–3.915) | 0.0113 |
No | 98 (81.0) | 77 (66.4) | |||
Positive culture | Yes | 68 (89.5) | 93 (84.5) | 0.643 (0.263–1.578) | 0.3354 |
No | 8 (10.5) | 17 (15.5) | |||
Days of mechanical ventilation | Median (IQR) | 5 (4–6) | 9 (5–12.3) | n.a | 0.0106 |
Days of non-invasive ventilation | Median (IQR) | 3 (2–4) | 3 (1–6) | 0.8071 | |
Length of hospital stay, days | Median (IQR) | 11 (9–14) | 16 (11.3–20.8) | n.a | < 0.0001 |
Mortality outcomes | Cases (%) |
---|---|
Total number of deaths | 55 |
Cause of death | |
Severe COVID-19 pneumonia | 39 (70.9) |
Bacterial infection | 5 (9.1) |
Bacteremia | 1 |
Non-bacteremia | 4 |
Thrombotic event | 7 (12.7) |
Comorbidity | 4 (7.3) |
Variables | Category | PCT < 0.2 (n = 45) | PCT ≥ 0.2 (n = 45) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Demographics | ||||
Gender | Female | 17 (37.8) | 17 (37.8) | 1.0000 |
Age | Mean (SD) | 55.1 (11.2) | 53.4 (13.1) | 0.5070 |
Age groups | < 50 | 13 (28.9) | 16 (35.6) | 0.7838 |
50–59 | 14 (31.1) | 15 (33.3) | ||
60–60 | 13 (28.9) | 9 (20.0) | ||
≥ 70 | 5 (11.1) | 5 (11.1) | ||
Ethnicity | Malay | 22 (48.9) | 27 (60.0) | 0.6236 |
Chinese | 9 (20.0) | 7 (15.6) | ||
Indian | 8 (17.8) | 8 (17.8) | ||
Others | 6 (13.3) | 3 (6.7) | ||
Clinical characteristics and baseline laboratory | ||||
Severity of disease | Category 4 | 35 (77.8) | 37 (82.2) | 0.5982 |
Category 5 | 10 (22.2) | 8 (17.8) | ||
Days of illness | Mean (SD) | 5.7 (2.8) | 5.6 (3.0) | 0.8852 |
SPO2 under RA (%) | < 92% | 38 (84.4) | 42 (93.3) | 0.1797 |
≥ 92% | 7 (15.6) | 3 (6.7) | ||
RR, bpm | < 20 | 5 (11.1) | 4 (8.9) | |
20–29 | 33 (73.3) | 31 (68.9) | ||
≥ 30 | 7 (15.6) | 10 (22.2) | ||
GCS | < 15 | 9 (20.0) | 11 (24.4) | 0.6121 |
15 | 36 (80.0) | 34 (75.6) | ||
Urea, mmol/dL | < 7 | 24 (53.3) | 20 (44.4) | 0.0139 |
7–14 | 17 (37.8) | 10 (22.2) | ||
> 14 | 4 (8.9) | 15 (33.3) | ||
CRP, mg/dL | < 5 | 17 (37.8) | 1 (2.2) | < 0.0001 |
5–9.9 | 13 (28.9) | 15 (33.3) | ||
≥ 10 | 15 (33.3) | 29 (64.4) | ||
WBC (× 1012/L) | Mean (SD) | 9.79 (4.26) | 10.69 (6.09) | 0.4148 |
ANC (× 109/L) | Mean (SD) | 7.89 (4.32) | 8.74 (5.82) | 0.4328 |
Comorbidity profile | ||||
No. of comorbidity | 0 | 15 (33.3) | 15 (33.3) | 0.9654 |
1 | 19 (42.2) | 18 (40.0) | ||
≥ 2 | 11 (24.4) | 12 (26.7) | ||
Hypertension | Yes | 24 (53.3) | 27(60.0) | 0.5234 |
Chronic cardiac disease (excluding HPT) | Yes | 12 (26.7) | 12 (26.7) | 1.0000 |
Asthma | Yes | 1 (2.2) | 0 | n.a |
Chronic pulmonary disease (excluding asthma) | Yes | 1 (2.2) | 2 (4.4) | n.a |
Diabetes mellitus | Yes | 24 (53.3) | 21 (46.7) | 0.5271 |
Pre-existing renal disease | Yes | 5 (11.1) | 9 (20.0) | 0.2447 |
Stage 2 | 2 | 0 | ||
Stage 3 | 0 | 1 | ||
Stage 4 | 2 | 0 | ||
Stage 5 | 1 | 8 | ||
HIV/AIDS | Yes | 0 | 0 | n.a |
Malignancy | Yes | 1 (2.2) | 0 | n.a |
Smoking | Yes, current | 0 | 2 (4.4) | n.a |
Obesity (> 30 kg/m2) | Yes | 2 (4.4) | 4 (8.9) | 0.6766 |
Chronic liver disease | Yes | 0 | 1 (2.2) | |
Dementia | Yes | 0 | 0 | |
Chronic neurological disease | Yes | 2 (4.4) | 1 (2.2) | |
Connective tissue disease | Yes | 2 (4.4) | 2 (4.4) |
Clinical outcomes | Category | PCT level | OR (95% CI) | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PCT < 0.2 (n = 45) | PCT ≥ 0.2 (n = 45) | ||||
Procalcitonin level | Mean (SD) | 0.068 (0.033) | 4.849 (11.624) | n.a | 0.0084 |
All-cause mortality | Yes | 4 (8.9) | 14 (31.1) | 4.629 (1.387–15.449) | 0.0127 |
No | 41 (91.1) | 31 (68.9) | |||
Mechanical ventilation | Yes | 12 (26.7) | 19 (42.2) | 2.010 (0.828–4.878) | 0.1229 |
No | 33 (73.3) | 26 (57.8) | |||
Non-invasive ventilation | Yes | 9 (20.0) | 18 (40.0) | 2.667 (1.039–6.847) | 0.0415 |
No | 36 (80.0) | 27 (60.0) | |||
ICU admission | Yes | 23 (51.1) | 28 (62.2) | 1.575 (0.681–3.648) | 0.2886 |
No | 22 (48.9) | 17 (37.8) | |||
Thrombotic events | Yes | 10 (22.2) | 15 (33.3) | 1.750 (0.686–4.467) | 0.2418 |
No | 35 (77.8) | 30 (66.7) | |||
Positive culture | Yes | 3 (10.0) | 4 (9.5) | 0.947 (0.196–4.582) | 0.9464 |
No | 27 (90.0) | 38 (90.5) | |||
Days of mechanical ventilation | Median (IQR) | 5 (4–6) | 8 (5–12) | n.a | 0.0213 |
Days of non-invasive ventilation | Median (IQR) | 3 (2–4) | 3.5 (1–6) | n.a | 0.7928 |
Length of hospital stay, days | Median (IQR) | 13.5 (9.8–17) | 15 (10–19.5) | n.a | 0.1304 |