Background
Discussion
Evidence of the health impact of cash transfers
Overview of key operational challenges and potential solutions
Implementation strategy
Challenges
Definition | Examples | Advantages | Disadvantages | |
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TB-specific initiatives | Cash transfer interventions explicitly targeting TB-affected individuals and/or households with the intent of addressing a specific TB care and prevention issue [35]. | They may represent the only option in contexts where existing social protection schemes have limited resources hampering the further expansion of their scope (i.e. the inclusion of TB control objectives) They may be more suitable in contexts where specific vulnerable groups are involved and/or treatment adherence support or costs mitigations interventions are to be prioritised | TB control programs staff may not have the competence and resources to manage these extra activities They may be perceived as stigmatising | |
TB-inclusive initiatives | Cash transfer schemes that are not limited to TB-related issues but include TB disease amongst their eligibility criteria. | Temporary Disability Grant in South Africa addressing people temporarily unable to work, including people living with TB disease and MDR-TB cases in particular | Same as the TB-specific initiatives They may represent a good compromise between TB-sensitive and TB specific to minimise the respective disadvantages | The may be still perceived as stigmatising. Further the impact of the intervention may be diluted across other health outcomes |
TB-sensitive initiatives | Cash transfers interventions not specific to TB patients but that could have an impact for TB patients or for TB prevention because they target groups and/or people at high risk of TB and vulnerable to deeper impoverishment due to its consequences [35]. | Bolsa Familia conditional cash transfer scheme in Brazil that may occasionally enrol TB patients not because of their health status, but because they meet the enrolment poverty profile applied by the programme [41] | They may represent the most efficient way to optimise existing resources They may be the best choice in contexts where TB incidence is not going down despite the good performance of the local TB control programmes in terms of percentage of case finding and treatment success rates They reduce the risk of stigmatisation of TB-patients | Making them more inclusive for people at risk of TB may interfere with their performance and affect their budget, especially in countries where these schemes are already run with limited resources Government-run schemes may be reluctant to address public health problems as their main objective remain fundamentally to address poverty Government-run schemes may be reluctant to address TB over other public health priorities |
Solutions
Operational challenges | Interim solutions | Research priorities |
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Implementation strategy | 1. Preliminary programmatic assessment of the TB-epidemiology profile and existing social protection environment based on structured framework including the following: • What population group is most affected by TB? • What are the barriers that prevent people from accessing the TB care services and completing treatment? • What are the socioeconomic consequences of TB and TB care on TB affected households? • What social protection schemes are in place? What population group they target? What geographic areas they cover and how they overlap with TB distribution? What is the proportion of TB affected-individuals/households reached by these schemes based on their enrolment criteria? How these schemes could be made more inclusive for TB-patients? 2. Ideally start with interim, relatively small, TB-specific interventions, aimed to address a specific TB control indicator to generate impact evidence and operational lessons. | 1. To design a programmatic assessment tool to support countries in choosing the best implementation strategy based on the TB epidemic profile and social protection features. 2. To undertake an inventory of all existing social protection initiatives somehow linked or linkable to TB control run at governmental and non-governmental level, then to identify the most promising initiatives to undergo impact and operational evaluation. 3. To create a network of impact and process evaluations from different countries so to have an overview of what works, where and why and share methodological and programmatic lessons. This could require approach, prioritising first TB-specific initiatives and natural experiments or quasi-experimental methods. 4. To develop and apply metrics to measure economic impact of TB for households 5. To develop innovative and rapid impact evaluation techniques, including mathematical modelling. |
Conditional vs Unconditional | 1. Undertake qualitative studies among intervention recipients to access the appropriateness of the conditions proposed and potential barriers to compliance. 2. If strict conditionality is deemed unfeasible or counterproductive, attempt the use of “soft” forms of conditionality. • Do not reduce the transfer size or decline eligibility only after several months of non-compliance with the behavioural requirements. • Do apply conditionality only for behaviour requirements that are simple to meet (i.e. attending TB education workshops). | 1. Identify key TB-control related behaviours that are more likely to be affected by the use of conditionalities. 2. Explore if and how conditionality compliance is influenced by the size of cash transfer, the frequency of cash transfers, other psychosocial and behavioural determinants, TB status and stage of disease. 3. Identify strategies to effectively and cost-effectively monitoring these conditionalities. |
Targeting approach | They are likely to differ depending on settings. Use multiple criteria based on poverty criteria and a risk score for TB. | 1. Verify targeting accuracy through qualitative assessment and TB surveys among the cash recipients; 2. Assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different targeting strategies; |
Sustainability | Identify multiple donors, domestic and international, addressing specific costs of the intervention. | 1. Extended cost-effective analysis (ECEA) to evaluate costs against TB costs mitigation at household, community and country level 2. Explore co-financing mechanisms |
An example of a TB-specific cash transfer program was the ISIAT (Innovative Socioeconomic Interventions Against TB) project in Peru, which offered an integrated multidisciplinary community and household socio-economic intervention to TB-affected households, including food and cash transfers, microcredit, microenterprise and vocational training [28]. The results of this pilot study have informed the design of the subsequent 6-year CRESIPT (Community Randomized Evaluation of a Socio-economic Intervention to Prevent Tuberculosis) project, a community randomised study. CRESIPT aims to provide rigorous evidence of the impact of integrated social support and conditional cash transfers on: sustained cure in TB patients; prevention of TB in household contacts; and TB rates in the wider community. CRESIPT is being preceded by an on-going pilot phase to implement and refine the complex socioeconomic intervention in 32 communities, assess its impact on TB chemoprophylaxis completion, and assess its acceptance through a process evaluation. |
Through engagement with participants, the national TB program and a civil society of ex-TB patients, the CRESIPT pilot developed its conditional cash transfer scheme with amounts that were perceived to be too small to affect participants’ autonomy in decision-making and large enough to reduce poverty-related TB risk factors [65]. Conditional cash transfers were provided to patient households for: i. screening for TB in household contacts and MDR-TB in patients; ii. adhering to TB treatment and chemoprophylaxis; and iii. engaging with CRESIPT social activities (household visits and participatory community meetings consisting of educational workshops and TB Clubs). A patient with non-MDR TB receiving six months of anti-TB treatment and completing all conditions optimally could receive cash transfers up to a value of US$ 230. |
TB-affected households participating in the intervention received an average of US$ 183 over the course of treatment for the compliance to the conditional requirements. This amount aimed to be similar to, and thus potentially mitigate, the average TB-affected households’ direct costs of “free” TB care (i.e. TB-related costs of additional food, transport, medicines, and clinical consultations equalling approximately 10 % of an average household’s annual income). The cost of the CRESIPT pilot’s socioeconomic intervention were <10 % of overall costs of treating a TB patient with non-MDR TB in the local Peruvian setting (WHO 2014 http://www.who.int/tb/dots/planning_budgeting_tool/overview.pdf). Expert opinion suggested that an intervention that increased a National TB Programme’s budget by 50 % and led to a 33 % reduction in TB incidence would likely be adopted by governments [71, 72]. The CRESIPT pilot cash transfer intervention cost considerably less than 50 % of the per patient national TB budget, even including project staff. |
An impact assessment to evaluate the effect of the CRESIPT pilot intervention on equitable access to TB treatment and prevention demonstrated improvement in treatment outcomes for patients and uptake of TB preventive therapy for the TB patients’ household members [73]. A process evaluation of the pilot suggested that: the project is likely to be sustainable due to involvement of patients and ex-patients as facilitators; there has been effective and synergistic cross-sectoral collaboration with the National TB Programme; and there is a perception from participants that the conditional cash transfers were patient-centred and empowering, especially for women. On the other hand the preliminary results of the process evaluation have shown challenges including: hidden bank charges and delays in cash transfers eroding participants’ confidence; conditional cash transfers requiring all household members to participate being poorly achieved; and high risk patients (e.g. the formerly incarcerated, the homeless, and those with drug or alcohol addiction) being difficult to engage and thus benefiting least from the intervention. |