The pathophysiology of DMD is highly complex, involving the dysregulation of many downstream cascades. Gene expression profiling is powerful for investigating the secondary changes of DMD patients. However, previous studies mainly focused on individual gene expression changes, without considering the gene co-expression pattern or the TF information. In this study, with combined two DMD microarray datasets, we implemented DCEA and constructed a TF regulated network with the hope to provide new understanding of the pathogenesis.
Both KEGG pathway and IPA canonical pathway analysis of the DEGs revealed that pathways enriched with aberrantly regulated genes are mostly involved in the immune response processes. This may be due to the infiltration of immune cells into the muscles and the elevated levels of various inflammatory cytokines [
18]-[
20]. In addition, the calcium signaling and nNOS signaling in skeletal muscle cells pathway were found to be enriched with deregulated genes, which is consistent with previous findings [
3],[
4].
DCEA results generated 610 pairs of DEGs regulated by at least one common TF, including 78 pairs of co-expressed DEGs. As shown in Figure
2, many TFs are involved in the regulation of these DEGs. Since
DMD is the causative gene, a subnetwork was constructed to illustrate important genes and TFs that may play important roles in the secondary changes of DMD patients (Figure
3). Among the DEGs which shared TFs with
DMD, six genes were co-expressed with
DMD, including
ATP1A2,
C1QB,
MYOF,
SAT1,
TRIP10, and
IFI6. Among them,
ATP1A2,
MYOF, and
SAT1 have previously been reported to be involved in muscular dystrophy [
21]-[
23]. The relationship between the three left genes and DMD is still known. However, it is worth further investigation. Take
IFI6 for example, this gene was highly expressed in muscle and bone and it is reported to inhibit cytochrome c release from mitochondria by regulating the Ca
2+ channel which consequently attenuate apoptosis [
24]. Alterations in intracellular Ca
2+ homeostasis are involved in the alteration of apoptosis since a sustained increase in cytosolic Ca
2+concentration accompanies with apoptosis in cells [
25]. Previous study [
26] have demonstrated the high influx of extracellular calcium through a dystrophin-deficient membrane, which may lead to subsequent muscle necrosis or apoptosis along with the inflammation response. Whether this gene contributes to the pathogenesis through its regulation of the Ca
2+ channel needs further investigation. Among the TFs detected in the array, several TFs of
DMD are dysregulated, including
GATA2 and
STAT5B. Further studies are needed to investigate their involvement in the disease and the mechanisms of other unmeasured TFs (Figure
3).
The ultimate cure for DMD will lie in the stable introduction of a functional dystrophin gene into the muscles of DMD patients, however, when gene therapy or transplantation of stem cells/ muscle precursor cells will be clinically available is unpredictable. In the interim, reducing secondary features of the pathologic progression of dystrophin deficiency could improve the quality and length of life for DMD patients. Dysregulation of the genes which were co-expressed with DMD may be caused by the malfunction of DMD. Therapeutic strategies aimed to compensate for the dysregulation of these genes may help to reduce the secondary features of DMD. Therefore, genes co-expressed with DMD we identified here may be considered as therapeutic targets in further investigations to treat the secondary effects. In addition, TFs that regulated these genes and DMD may also serve as potential therapeutic markers in future studies.