Background
Methods
Sampling
Ethnic group | Language | Local names |
---|---|---|
Batombu | Baatonu | Diremou |
Yoruba | Nagot/Idatcha | Ichin/Iguichin |
Otamari | Ditammari | Moufodom |
Natemba | Naténi | Foulama |
Fon | Fongbé/Mahi | Lissètin/Sissitin |
Ethnobotanical survey
Data analysis
Results
Local names of ackee
Motivation to conserve ackee trees
Category/Criteria | Variant | Batombu (n = 40) | Yoruba (n = 60) | Otamari (n = 30) | Natemba (n = 30) | Fon (n = 80) | Total | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F
| % | FL |
F
| % | FL |
F
| % | FL |
F
| % | FL |
F
| % | FL |
F
| % | |||
Motivation | Market | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 11 | 36.7 | 15.28 | 6 | 20.0 | 12.24 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 17 | 7.1 | |
Shade | 3 | 7.5 | 6.12 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 1 | 3.3 | 2.04 | 15 | 18.8 | 20.83 | 19 | 7.9 | ||
Medicine | 15 | 37.5 | 30.61 | 12 | 20.0 | 26.67 | 22 | 73.3 | 30.56 | 6 | 20.0 | 12.24 | 3 | 3.8 | 4.17 | 58 | 24.2 | ||
Soap | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 1 | 1.7 | 2.22 | 9 | 30.0 | 12.50 | 12 | 40.0 | 24.49 | 2 | 2.5 | 2.78 | 24 | 10.0 | ||
Food | 28 | 70.0 | 57.14 | 32 | 53.3 | 71.11 | 30 | 100.0 | 41.67 | 24 | 80.0 | 48.98 | 51 | 63.8 | 70.83 | 165 | 68.8 | ||
Myth | 3 | 7.5 | 6.12 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 1 | 1.3 | 1.39 | 4 | 1.7 | ||
ΣF | 49 | - | - | 45 | - | - | 72 | - | - | 49 | - | - | 72 | - | - | - | - | ||
Uses |
Food
| Fresh aril | 29 | 72.5 | 19.59 | 27 | 45.0 | 42.19 | 25 | 83.3 | 20.49 | 22 | 73.3 | 22.22 | 51 | 63.8 | 72.86 | 154 | 64.2 |
Dried aril | 29 | 72.5 | 19.59 | 21 | 35.0 | 32.81 | 25 | 83.3 | 20.49 | 22 | 73.3 | 22.22 | 3 | 3.8 | 4.29 | 100 | 41.7 | ||
Fried aril | 29 | 72.5 | 19.59 | 3 | 5.0 | 4.69 | 1 | 3.3 | 0.82 | 6 | 20.0 | 6.06 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 39 | 16.3 | ||
Boiled aril | 29 | 72.5 | 19.59 | 10 | 16.7 | 15.63 | 25 | 83.3 | 20.49 | 21 | 70.0 | 21.21 | 8 | 10.0 | 11.43 | 93 | 38.8 | ||
Vegetable | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 3 | 10.0 | 3.03 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 3 | 1.3 | ||
Fisheries
| Fisheries | 1 | 2.5 | 0.68 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 22 | 73.3 | 18.03 | 10 | 33.3 | 10.10 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 33 | 13.8 | |
Soap
| Soap | 23 | 57.5 | 15.54 | 1 | 1.7 | 1.56 | 19 | 63.3 | 15.57 | 15 | 50.0 | 15.15 | 6 | 7.5 | 8.57 | 64 | 26.7 | |
Capsule to wash | 7 | 17.5 | 4.73 | 2 | 3.3 | 3.13 | 4 | 13.3 | 3.28 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 2 | 2.5 | 2.86 | 15 | 6.3 | ||
Repellent
| Repellent | 1 | 2.5 | 0.68 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 1 | 3.3 | 0.82 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 2 | 0.8 | |
ΣF | 148 | - | - | 64 | - | - | 122 | - | - | 99 | - | - | 70 | - | - | - | - | ||
Variation in fruits traits |
Differentiation in fruits traits
| Fruit size | 29 | 72.5 | 38.67 | 13 | 21.7 | 39.39 | 21 | 70.0 | 33.87 | 20 | 66.7 | 42.55 | 5 | 6.3 | 45.45 | 88 | 36.7 |
Fruit shape | 1 | 2.5 | 1.33 | 1 | 1.7 | 3.03 | 1 | 3.3 | 1.61 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 3 | 1.3 | ||
Aril colour | 1 | 2.5 | 1.33 | 2 | 3.3 | 6.06 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 2 | 6.7 | 4.26 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 5 | 2.1 | ||
Aril size | 1 | 2.5 | 1.33 | 1 | 1.7 | 3.03 | 1 | 3.3 | 1.61 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 3 | 1.3 | ||
Aril taste | 3 | 7.5 | 4.00 | 4 | 6.7 | 12.12 | 5 | 16.7 | 8.06 | 1 | 3.3 | 2.13 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 13 | 5.4 | ||
Seed size | 12 | 30.0 | 16.00 | 1 | 1.7 | 3.03 | 12 | 40.0 | 19.35 | 5 | 16.7 | 10.64 | 1 | 1.3 | 9.09 | 31 | 12.9 | ||
Preference in fruits traits
| Fruit size | 28 | 70.0 | 37.33 | 9 | 15.0 | 27.27 | 19 | 63.3 | 30.65 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 56 | 23.3 | |
Fruit shape | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 1 | 1.7 | 3.03 | 1 | 3.3 | 1.61 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 2 | 0.8 | ||
Aril colour | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 1 | 3.3 | 1.61 | 19 | 63.3 | 40.43 | 5 | 6.3 | 45.45 | 25 | 10.4 | ||
Aril size | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 1 | 1.7 | 3.03 | 1 | 3.3 | 1.61 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 2 | 0.8 | ||
Aril taste | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 4 | 6.7 | 10.26 | 6 | 20.0 | 10.00 | 1 | 3.3 | 1.79 | 1 | 1.3 | 1.96 | 12 | 5.0 | ||
ΣF | 75 | - | - | 33 | - | - | 62 | - | - | 47 | - | - | 11 | - | - | - | - | ||
Propagation and regeneration practices | Assisted tree regeneration | 18 | 45.0 | 24.00 | 2 | 3.3 | 5.13 | 17 | 56.7 | 28.33 | 19 | 63.3 | 33.93 | 5 | 6.3 | 9.80 | 61 | 25.4 | |
Transplanting | 27 | 67.5 | 36.00 | 25 | 41.7 | 64.10 | 19 | 63.3 | 31.67 | 21 | 70.0 | 37.50 | 40 | 50.0 | 78.43 | 132 | 55.0 | ||
Sowing | 30 | 75.0 | 40.00 | 5 | 8.3 | 12.82 | 16 | 53.3 | 26.67 | 15 | 50.0 | 26.79 | 5 | 6.3 | 9.80 | 71 | 29.6 | ||
ΣF | 75 | - | - | 39 | - | - | 60 | - | - | 56 | - | - | 51 | - | - | ||||
Management practices to improve production | Ringing | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 3 | 5.0 | 7.69 | 2 | 6.7 | 3.33 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 5 | 2.1 | |
Grazing protection | 1 | 2.5 | 1.23 | 1 | 1.7 | 3.70 | 1 | 3.3 | 1.67 | 1 | 3.3 | 1.92 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 4 | 1.7 | ||
Tree/crop association | 8 | 20.0 | 9.88 | 10 | 16.7 | 37.04 | 3 | 10.0 | 5.00 | 4 | 13.3 | 7.69 | 17 | 21.3 | 44.74 | 42 | 17.5 | ||
Pruning | 25 | 62.5 | 30.86 | 4 | 6.7 | 14.81 | 20 | 66.7 | 33.33 | 22 | 73.3 | 42.31 | 1 | 1.3 | 2.63 | 72 | 30.0 | ||
Fire protection | 27 | 67.5 | 33.33 | 12 | 20.0 | 44.44 | 22 | 73.3 | 36.67 | 16 | 53.3 | 30.77 | 20 | 25.0 | 52.63 | 97 | 40.4 | ||
Mulching/ | 20 | 50.0 | 24.69 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 14 | 46.7 | 23.33 | 9 | 30.0 | 17.31 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 43 | 17.9 | ||
ΣF | 81 | - | - | 27 | - | - | 60 | - | - | 52 | - | - | 38 | - | - | - | - |
Indigenous knowledge and traditional management variables | Source of variation | Degree of freedom | Chi-Square | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Motivation to conserve | EG | 4 | 14.49 | < 0.01 |
GG | 1 | 0.10 | 0.754 | |
EG*GG | 4 | 13.11 | < 0.05 | |
Likelihood ratio | 25 | 164.85 | < 0.001 | |
Uses as Food | EG | 4 | 11.37 | < 0.05 |
GG | 1 | 5.12 | < 0.05 | |
EG*GG | 4 | 8.23 | 0.084 | |
Likelihood ratio | 28 | 157.48 | < 0.001 | |
Uses as Soap | EG | 4 | 18.09 | < 0.01 |
GG | 1 | 7.30 | < 0.01 | |
EG*GG | 4 | 5.58 | 0.232 | |
Likelihood ratio | 16 | 104.24 | < 0.001 | |
Uses in Fisheries | EG | 4 | 55.98 | < 0.001 |
GG | 1 | 1.87 | 0.172 | |
EG*GG | 4 | 0.89 | 0.926 | |
Likelihood ratio | 5 | 37.48 | < 0.001 | |
Differentiation in fruits traits | EG | 4 | 9.54 | < 0.05 |
GG | 1 | 0.30 | 0.586 | |
EG*GG | 4 | 3.03 | 0.553 | |
Likelihood ratio | 13 | 82.46 | < 0.001 | |
Preference in fruits traits | EG | 4 | 31.91 | < 0.001 |
GG | 1 | 1.24 | 0.266 | |
EG*GG | 4 | 3.92 | 0.417 | |
Likelihood ratio | 12 | 39.18 | < 0.001 | |
Propagation and Regeneration practices | EG | 4 | 5.84 | 0.212 |
GG | 1 | 3.93 | < 0.05 | |
EG*GG | 4 | 11.37 | < 0.05 | |
Likelihood ratio | 19 | 77.04 | < 0.001 | |
Management Practices to improve production | EG | 4 | 14.21 | < 0.01 |
GG | 1 | 7.95 | < 0.01 | |
EG*GG | 4 | 12.50 | < 0.05 | |
Likelihood ratio | 32 | 99.78 | < 0.001 |
Main uses, post-harvest handling and processing of ackee
Use of ackee as food
Use of ackee as soap
Virtue and medicinal properties | Number of quotations | |
---|---|---|
♂ | ♀ | |
Scabies | 24 | 20 |
Tinea | 22 | 19 |
Antipyretic | 20 | 23 |
Antiseptic, dermatosis | 23 | 27 |
Softening of the skin | 20 | 29 |
Washing | 3 | 6 |
Burns | 21 | 24 |
Use of ackee in fisheries
Use of ackee as repellent
Traditional medicinal uses of ackee
N° | Disease/virtue | Composition/preparation | Dosage |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Whitlow | Bark + common beans or cowpeas + salt. Crush the mixed | Application of the mixture on the finger |
Crush roasted seeds + palm kernel oil | |||
Crush roasted seeds roasted and + palm oil | |||
Incinerate a mix of ackee seeds + cashew nuts. Add palm oil to the ashes | |||
2 | Head lice | Incinerate the capsules to obtain ashes | Use the ashes to wash the head |
3 | Dental decay | Crush seeds + salt | Put on the decaying teeth |
Crush dried bark | Put on the hole of the decaying teeth | ||
4 | Child Fever | Infusion of the roots | Wash the child with the infusion |
Decoction of leaves and bark | Wash the child with the decoction | ||
Triturate leaves with water | |||
5 | Fever | Triturate leaves of ackee and teak (Tectona grandis L. f.) | |
Triturate leaves of ackee and mango (Mangifera indica L.) | |||
6 | Yellow Fever | Crush dried bark into powder + salt | Add the mix to a porridge and drink it |
Crush bark + African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br. ex G.Don) mustard | Eat | ||
7 | Eyes problems | Soak bark in water | Wash the eyes with the water |
8 | Bite of scorpion or snake | Crush dried bark into powder + salt | Application on the wounded zone and eat also |
9 | Malaria | Infusion of bark + seeds of green pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) + soya bean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) leaves | Take three glass per day |
Infusion of ackee and papaya (Carica papaya L.) leaves | |||
Infusion of bark | |||
Decoction of leaves | |||
Decoction of dried bark | |||
10 | Healing of wound | Crush bark or seeds into powder | Application into the wound |
11 | Apparition of the first children's teeth | Decoction of leaves and bark | Make drink the child |
12 | Abscess | Crush bark + common beans or cowpeas | Application on the abscess |
Crush roasted seeds + oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) oil | |||
13 | Burns | Crush and press the bark to gather the juice + honey | Application on the burn area |
14 | Cutaneous infections, buttons on the body | Infusion of leaves and bark | Take a shower with the infusion |
15 | Internal hemorrhage | Crush dried bark | Add to porridge and drink |
16 | Pregnant woman blood flow | Macerate leaves previously exposed to the dew + limestone | Drink three glasses per day |
17 | Constipation | Decoction of bark | |
18 | Anemia | Decoction of roots | |
19 | Vomiting | Decoction of leaves | |
20 | Dysentery | Decoction of leaves + shea (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) butter | |
21 | Guinea worm infection (Dracunculiasis) | Crush dried bark + shea (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) butter + potash | Apply the mix on the skin |
22 | Fracture | Macerate leaves | Massage the fractured limb |
Perception of variation and preferences in ackee fruit traits
Existence of different types of ackee
Differentiation criteria | Different type reported | Characteristic | Percent of interviewees |
---|---|---|---|
Size fruit | Small | Narrow leaflets, wild tree, small aril | 36.67 |
Large | Larger leaflets, planted tree, large aril | ||
Aril taste | Soft | - | 5.42 |
Hard | - | ||
Aril size + seed size | Large aril and small seed | - | 2.08 |
Small aril and large seed | - | ||
Aril colour | Light yellow | Less tasty and hard to conserve | 2.08 |
Yellow | Tasty and easy to conserve | ||
Fruit shape | Elongate | - | 1.25 |
Short | - | ||
Fruit size + fruit shape | Small and elongate | Aril very tasty | 1.25 |
Height of the tree before the first fructification | Small | Between 1.5 and 2 meters | 1.25 |
Tall | More than 2 meters | ||
Capsule's number of chambers | 3 chambers | 0.83 | |
4 chambers | |||
5 chambers | |||
Leaflets width | Large | - | 0.83 |
Narrow | - |
Differentiation and preferences in ackee fruit traits
Traditional management practices
Propagation and indigenous regeneration practices
Practice | Reason/function | Implementation | |
---|---|---|---|
Propagation and regeneration practices | Assisted tree regeneration | Favour natural regeneration | Young plants are staked to be easily visible and protected from tillage, grazing and fire |
Transplanting of wildings | Use of naturally regenerated seedlings and saplings | Seedlings and saplings are removed and replanted in an appropriate area and given essential care | |
Sowing | Multiply the best provenance with the preferred fruits traits | Seeds from the most vigorous or best fruit yielding trees are selected and put together. After germination during the rainy season, they are transplanted in an appropriate location to receive care | |
Management practices to improve production | Ringing | Stimulate fruit production | A shallow 10 cm-wide ring of bark is cut from the trunk at breast height just before flowering |
Grazing protection | Avoid destruction of seedlings and saplings by domestic animals | Establish fence of cacti or rocks around the seedlings and saplings | |
Tree/crop association | Diversification, soil protection, shadow for cultures, creation of microclimate favourable for crops | To leave naturally growing or planted ackee trees in farmland and to plant crops such as millet, sorghum. maize, yam in the same field | |
Pruning | Improved fruit production, reduction of shade on understorey crops, firewood | Cutting back certain branches | |
Fire protection | Avoid fire damages to trees that affect fruit yield and destroy seedlings and saplings | Tillage, weeding and clearing around the seedlings, saplings and trees | |
Mulching/organic fertilization | Rapid growth of seedlings and saplings and increasing fruit production | Leaf mulch, animal manure, compost and crop residues near the root and sprinkling with water |
Traditional management practices to improve the production
Links between indigenous knowledge, perception of variation and traditional management of ackee in Benin
Category/Criteria | Variant | PCA 1 | PCA 2 | PCA 3 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Motivation | Market | -0.236 |
-0.611
| -0.353 |
Shade | 0.303 |
0.676
| -0.068 | |
Medicine |
-0.833
| -0.163 | 0.343 | |
Soap | -0.117 |
-0.612
|
-0.509
| |
Food | 0.204 |
0.763
| 0.039 | |
Myth |
-0.634
|
0.673
| -0.098 | |
Food use | Fresh aril | 0.218 |
0.862
| -0.033 |
Dried aril |
-0.903
| -0.224 | 0.002 | |
Fried aril |
-0.708
| 0.435 | -0.240 | |
Boiled aril |
-0.866
| 0.012 | -0.363 | |
Vegetable | -0.027 | -0.323 | -0.54 9 | |
Fisheries use | - | -0.375 |
-0.610
| -0.042 |
Soap use | Soap |
-0.898
| 0.046 | -0.320 |
Capsule to wash |
-0.811
| 0.467 | 0.222 | |
Use as repellent | - |
-0.853
| 0.221 | 0.284 |
Perception of variation | Size fruit |
-0.925
| -0.008 | -0.240 |
Fruit shape |
-0.657
| 0.052 |
0.674
| |
Color aril | -0.181 | -0.194 | 0.168 | |
Size aril |
-0.657
| 0.052 |
0.674
| |
Taste aril |
-0.720
| -0.080 |
0.552
| |
Size seed |
-0.907
| -0.024 | -0.207 | |
Preference in fruits traits | Size fruit |
-0.844
| 0.174 | 0.133 |
Fruit shape | -0.183 | -0.369 |
0.840
| |
Color aril | 0.213 | -0.300 |
-0.684
| |
Size aril | -0.183 | -0.369 |
0.840
| |
Taste aril | -0.154 | -0.458 |
0.616
| |
Propagation and regeneration practices | Assisted tree regeneration |
-0.795
| -0.082 | -0.463 |
Transplanting of wildings | 0.139 |
0.889
| 0.054 | |
Sowing |
-0.885
| 0.299 | -0.305 | |
Management practices to improve production | Ringing | 0.053 | -0.140 | 0.241 |
Grazing protection | 0.003 | -0.332 | 0.124 | |
Tree/crop association | 0.434 |
0.778
| 0.184 | |
Pruning |
-0.880
| -0.100 | -0.382 | |
Fire protection |
-0.725
|
0.562
| -0.069 | |
Mulching/organic fertilization |
-0.891
| -0.034 | -0.181 |