Background
Methods
Recruitment
Measure
|
TD (
n
= 21)
|
ARND (
n
= 22)
|
ADHD (
n
= 19)
|
Significance
a
|
Post hoc
tests
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean
|
Std dev
|
Mean
|
Std dev
|
Mean
|
Std dev
| |||
Age (years) | 12.60 | 1.29 | 12.20 | 1.64 | 11.93 | 1.33 |
F = 1.098, p = 0.340 | |
Sex (% male) | 76.2 | 63.6 | 89.5 |
χ
2
= 3.713, p = 0.156 | ||||
Household income ($) | 70,842 | 15,302 | 49,733 | 21,118 | 65,287 | 27,879 |
F = 5.261, p = 0.008 | TD > ARND, p = 0.007b
|
Full-scale IQ | 107.81 | 13.08 | 73.05 | 12.33 | 95.79 | 16.97 |
F = 32.527, p < 0.001 | TD > ARND, p < 0.001c
|
ADHD > ARND, p < 0.001c
|
Comorbidities
Psychological assessment
fMRI tasks
Statistics for psychological tests and task performance
Magnetic resonance imaging
DTI
Results
Demographics and behavioral data
Parameter
|
TD (
n
= 21)
|
ARND (
n
= 22)
|
ADHD (
n
= 19)
|
Significance
a
|
Post hoc
tests
b
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean
|
Std dev
|
Mean
|
Std dev
|
Mean
|
Std dev
| |||
Cognitive/inattention scores | 49.0 | 5.2 | 71.9 | 11.6 | 65.7 | 11.3 |
F = 30.166, p < 0.001 | TD < ARND, p < 0.001 |
TD < ADHD, p < 0.001 | ||||||||
DSM-IV inattention scores | 49.4 | 5.2 | 71.7 | 12.4 | 65.8 | 10.9 |
F = 27.809, p < 0.001 | TD < ARND, p < 0.001 |
TD < ADHD, p < 0.001 | ||||||||
Errors of omission (OM) | 45.4 | 5.2 | 59.3 | 13.9 | 48.3 | 7.4 |
F = 11.723, p < 0.001 | ARND > TD, p = 0.001 |
ARND > ADHD, p = 0.012 | ||||||||
Disjunction accuracy (%) | 94.6 | 6.0 | 86.0 | 11.4 | 93.4 | 5.4 |
F = 6.876, p = 0.002 | ARND < TD, p = 0.011 |
ARND < ADHD, p = 0.030 | ||||||||
Conjunction accuracy (%) | 91.7 | 7.6 | 71.0 | 13.9 | 84.3 | 10.9 |
F = 18.867, p < 0.001 | ARND < TD, p < 0.001 |
ARND < ADHD, p = 0.004 | ||||||||
Conjunction errors (%) | 5.2 | 6.8 | 18.3 | 10.6 | 9.2 | 8.9 |
F = 12.083, p < 0.001 | ARND > TD, p < 0.001 |
ARND > ADHD, p = 0.013 | ||||||||
Conjunction non-response (%) | 3.1 | 3.0 | 10.9 | 11.3 | 8.0 | 8.9 |
F = 4.597, p = 0.014 | |
Disjunction response time (ms) | 729.3 | 184.2 | 819.9 | 184.0 | 804.0 | 161.3 |
F = 1.569, p = 0.217 | |
Conjunction response time (ms) | 799.0 | 178.1 | 883.0 | 186.0 | 854.5 | 187.3 |
F = 1.153, p = 0.323 | |
Disjunction response variability (ms) | 135.8 | 77.9 | 220.3 | 116.0 | 250.0 | 130.7 |
F = 5.933, p = 0.004 | ARND < ADHD, p = 0.021 |
ADHD > TD, p = 0.007 | ||||||||
Conjunction response variability (ms) | 172.0 | 67.1 | 248.1 | 87.3 | 251.5 | 144.8 |
F = 3.943, p = 0.025 |
fMRI task performance
fMRI results
Disjunction search
Conjunction search
Region
|
Hemisphere
|
Gyrus
|
BA
|
Talairach coordinates
|
Voxel
T
|
Cluster extent
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X
|
Y
|
Z
| ||||||
Frontal | Left | Inferior frontal | 13 | −36 | 22 | 8 | 3.27 | 184 |
Inferior frontal | 47 | −26 | 7 | −17 | 2.56 | 14 | ||
Paracentral lobule | 5 | 0 | −39 | 66 | 2.64 | 33 | ||
Precentral | 44 | −42 | 4 | 9 | 2.37 | 12 | ||
Right | Inferior frontal | 45 | 55 | 15 | 20 | 3.03 | 103 | |
Medial frontal | 6 | 8 | −28 | 70 | 2.78 | 17 | ||
Middle frontal | 6 | 34 | −3 | 54 | 2.72 | 121 | ||
Paracentral lobule | 6 | 2 | −30 | 57 | 2.59 | 25 | ||
Precentral | 6 | 38 | −11 | 56 | 3.36 | 121 | ||
Precentral | 6 | 42 | −3 | 55 | 2.45 | 121 | ||
Precentral | 6 | 40 | 1 | 26 | 3.01 | 52 | ||
Superior frontal | 10 | 20 | 54 | −1 | 2.64 | 14 | ||
Limbic | Left | Cingulate | 31 | −2 | −36 | 26 | 2.98 | 114 |
Right | Cingulate | 24 | 4 | 0 | 41 | 2.59 | 18 | |
Right | Cingulate | 31 | 32 | −43 | 26 | 3.20 | 24 | |
Parahippocampal | 19 | 40 | −41 | −3 | 2.78 | 22 | ||
Parahippocampal | 19 | 26 | −45 | −3 | 2.52 | 15 | ||
Temporal | Left | Fusiform | 20 | −38 | −11 | −23 | 2.50 | 13 |
Sub-gyral | 21 | −44 | −10 | −11 | 2.86 | 270 | ||
Superior temporal | 22 | −57 | 2 | −5 | 4.10 | 270 | ||
Superior temporal | 22 | −53 | −23 | 3 | 2.53 | 57 | ||
Right | Inferior temporal | 20 | 48 | −9 | −21 | 2.82 | 101 | |
Middle temporal | 21 | 57 | −60 | 5 | 4.06 | 206 | ||
Middle temporal | 21 | 61 | −10 | −6 | 4.04 | 69 | ||
Middle temporal | 21 | 51 | 7 | −15 | 2.79 | 91 | ||
Middle temporal | 21 | 38 | −1 | −23 | 2.47 | 101 | ||
Middle temporal | 21 | 48 | −7 | −15 | 2.45 | 101 | ||
Middle temporal | 39 | 44 | −56 | 6 | 2.73 | 206 | ||
Middle temporal | 39 | 44 | −71 | 24 | 3.89 | 451 | ||
Middle temporal | 39 | 46 | −75 | 15 | 3.25 | 451 | ||
Middle temporal | 39 | 42 | −52 | 15 | 3.27 | 568 | ||
Sub-gyral | 21 | 40 | −3 | −12 | 2.89 | 198 | ||
Superior temporal | 22 | 59 | −56 | 14 | 2.71 | 206 | ||
Superior temporal | 22 | 51 | −6 | 4 | 2.80 | 45 | ||
Superior temporal | 22 | 59 | 2 | −3 | 2.33 | 45 | ||
Superior temporal | 38 | 42 | 12 | −22 | 3.20 | 91 | ||
Superior temporal | 41 | 57 | −17 | 8 | 3.09 | 568 | ||
Parietal | Left | Inferior parietal lobule | 40 | −63 | −36 | 24 | 2.93 | 20 |
Postcentral | 40 | −57 | −19 | 18 | 2.65 | 23 | ||
Precuneus | 7 | 0 | −49 | 39 | 3.36 | 56 | ||
Right | Postcentral | 3 | 20 | −33 | 72 | 3.39 | 21 | |
Postcentral | 5 | 6 | −45 | 67 | 2.78 | 33 | ||
Precuneus | 31 | 4 | −53 | 30 | 2.66 | 23 | ||
Supramarginal | 40 | 63 | −41 | 30 | 2.92 | 36 | ||
Occipital | Left | Lingual | 18 | −12 | −54 | 3 | 2.53 | 15 |
Middle occipital | 18 | −20 | −86 | −9 | 2.81 | 30 | ||
Middle occipital | 19 | −36 | −83 | 13 | 2.83 | 25 | ||
Right | Cuneus | 18 | 12 | −99 | 7 | 2.67 | 12 | |
Cuneus | 30 | 10 | −62 | 7 | 2.51 | 34 | ||
Middle occipital | 19 | 53 | −64 | −4 | 3.27 | 451 | ||
Sub-lobar | Left | Caudate: caudate body | −16 | −14 | 21 | 3.97 | 101 | |
Caudate: caudate body | −6 | 20 | 6 | 3.38 | 389 | |||
Caudate: caudate tail | −20 | −40 | 15 | 3.33 | 49 | |||
Claustrum | −38 | −11 | 4 | 3.30 | 270 | |||
Claustrum | −30 | −5 | 17 | 2.55 | 22 | |||
Insula | 13 | −34 | −13 | 17 | 2.48 | 22 | ||
Lentiform nucleus: medial globus pallidus | −14 | −4 | 0 | 3.01 | 115 | |||
Thalamus | −18 | −7 | 17 | 2.62 | 101 | |||
Thalamus | −6 | −12 | 1 | 2.20 | 115 | |||
Thalamus: pulvinar | −6 | −29 | 12 | 3.10 | 103 | |||
Right | Claustrum | 36 | −10 | −8 | 3.03 | 198 | ||
Insula | 13 | 51 | −34 | 20 | 3.11 | 568 | ||
Insula | 13 | 40 | −9 | 6 | 2.78 | 198 | ||
Lentiform nucleus: lateral globus pallidus | 24 | −15 | 6 | 2.82 | 84 | |||
Lentiform nucleus: putamen | 20 | −7 | 15 | 2.87 | 389 | |||
Thalamus | 8 | −10 | 2 | 2.79 | 84 | |||
Thalamus | 18 | −14 | 1 | 2.50 | 84 | |||
Thalamus: pulvinar | 8 | −27 | 11 | 3.01 | 103 | |||
Thalamus: pulvinar | 16 | −34 | 13 | 2.51 | 103 | |||
Thalamus: ventral lateral nucleus | 18 | −15 | 19 | 3.49 | 389 | |||
Midbrain | Left | Substantia nigra | −10 | −10 | −10 | 2.95 | 115 | |
Anterior cerebellum | Left | Cerebellar lingual | −8 | −43 | −10 | 2.88 | 31 | |
Culmen | −18 | 26 | −17 | 2.90 | 14 |
Region
|
Hemisphere
|
Gyrus
|
BA
|
Talairach coordinates
|
Voxel
T
|
Cluster extent
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X
|
Y
|
Z
| ||||||
Frontal | Left | Middle frontal | 9 | −42 | 8 | 36 | 2.96 | 32 |
Precentral | 9 | −32 | 6 | 33 | 3.21 | 28 | ||
Superior frontal | 8 | −38 | 16 | 53 | 2.79 | 16 | ||
Limbic | Right | Parahippocampal | 28 | −22 | −12 | 3.06 | 15 | |
Hippocampus | ||||||||
Temporal | Left | Middle temporal | 39 | −34 | −59 | 27 | 2.51 | 21 |
Parietal | Left | Precuneus | 39 | −36 | −66 | 31 | 2.23 | 21 |
Anterior cerebellum | Right | 4 | −42 | −26 | 3.08 | 27 |
Region
|
Hemisphere
|
Gyrus
|
BA
|
Talairach coordinates
|
Voxel
T
|
Cluster extent
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X
|
Y
|
Z
| ||||||
Frontal | Left | Middle frontal | 47 | −44 | 37 | −7 | 2.96 | 75 |
Right | Superior frontal | 10 | 20 | 54 | −1 | 3.35 | 53 | |
Temporal | Right | Middle temporal | 39 | 48 | −73 | 22 | 2.56 | 13 |
Region
|
Hemisphere
|
Gyrus
|
BA
|
Talairach coordinates
|
Voxel
T
|
Cluster extent
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X
|
Y
|
Z
| ||||||
Frontal | Left | Middle frontal | 8 | −36 | 33 | 41 | 3.27 | 69 |
Middle frontal | 9 | −32 | 45 | 36 | 3.13 | 69 | ||
Middle frontal | 8 | −44 | 20 | 45 | 2.38 | 13 | ||
Right | Middle frontal | 8 | 53 | 10 | 42 | 3.09 | 239 | |
Middle frontal | 6 | 34 | 2 | 44 | 2.42 | 22 | ||
Middle frontal | 6 | 22 | 4 | 44 | 2.40 | 12 | ||
Precentral | 6 | 61 | −16 | 38 | 2.91 | 239 | ||
Superior frontal | 6 | 14 | 20 | 58 | 2.42 | 17 | ||
Limbic | Left | Anterior cingulate | 33 | −8 | 20 | 17 | 2.60 | 12 |
Cingulate | 24 | −12 | 4 | 44 | 3.68 | 7,529 | ||
Posterior cingulate | 30 | −22 | −60 | 5 | 3.61 | 4,219 | ||
Right | Cingulate | 24 | 16 | −14 | 39 | 3.62 | 7,529 | |
Parahippocampal | 35 | 18 | −28 | −9 | 3.17 | 148 | ||
Temporal | Left | Middle temporal | 39 | −50 | −63 | 29 | 2.59 | 184 |
Middle temporal | 21 | −57 | −56 | 3 | 2.48 | 29 | ||
Sub-gyral: hippocampus | −30 | −27 | −2 | 2.57 | 19 | |||
Superior temporal | 39 | −50 | −57 | 23 | 2.87 | 184 | ||
Right | Sub-gyral: hippocampus | 30 | −24 | −11 | 3.79 | 148 | ||
Sub-gyral | 37 | 46 | −45 | −10 | 3.20 | 61 | ||
Hippocampus: dentate | 20 | −52 | −23 | 2.60 | 50 | |||
Parietal | Left | Postcentral | 2 | −40 | −22 | 34 | 3.88 | 7,529 |
Right | Postcentral | 3 | 48 | −18 | 38 | 3.16 | 239 | |
Postcentral | 2 | 36 | −28 | 33 | 2.82 | 24 | ||
Occipital | Right | Cuneus | 18 | 26 | −93 | 1 | 2.81 | 45 |
Lingual | 18 | 8 | −74 | 2 | 2.68 | 29 | ||
Precuneus | 31 | 24 | −71 | 16 | 2.63 | 21 | ||
Sub-lobar | Right | Thalamus: pulvinar | 22 | −28 | 14 | 2.65 | 31 | |
Posterior cerebellum | Left | Declive | −14 | −76 | −13 | 3.32 | 4,219 | |
Right | Declive | 28 | −69 | −18 | 3.07 | 36 | ||
Declive | 36 | −65 | −20 | 2.80 | 36 | |||
Declive | 6 | −67 | −12 | 2.73 | 37 | |||
Anterior cerebellum | Left | Culmen | −30 | −44 | −20 | 3.59 | 4,219 | |
Culmen of vermis | −2 | −62 | −5 | 2.77 | 15 | |||
Right | Culmen | 14 | −32 | −22 | 2.72 | 40 |
Region
|
Hemisphere
|
Gyrus
|
BA
|
Talairach coordinates
|
Voxel
T
|
Cluster extent
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X
|
Y
|
Z
| ||||||
Frontal | Left | Middle frontal | 6 | −26 | −7 | 57 | 4.39 | 32,410 |
Middle frontal | 6 | −51 | 2 | 39 | 3.46 | 152 | ||
Middle frontal | 8 | −36 | 33 | 41 | 3.76 | 186 | ||
Middle frontal | 8 | −30 | 22 | 45 | 2.68 | 186 | ||
Middle frontal | 9 | −28 | 46 | 36 | 2.81 | 186 | ||
Precentral | 6 | −46 | −4 | 28 | 2.58 | 152 | ||
Precentral | 6 | −34 | 3 | 22 | 2.97 | 60 | ||
Right | Middle frontal | 8 | 53 | 10 | 42 | 3.12 | 42 | |
Precentral | 6 | 46 | −2 | 46 | 2.52 | 42 | ||
Precentral | 6 | 57 | 4 | 33 | 2.74 | 19 | ||
Precentral | 6 | 42 | −8 | 34 | 2.43 | 12 | ||
Superior frontal | 8 | 30 | 45 | 38 | 2.55 | 18 | ||
Limbic | Left | Cingulate | 31 | −14 | −37 | 37 | 4.21 | 32,410 |
Right | Anterior cingulate | 33 | 4 | 17 | 19 | 2.91 | 35 | |
Posterior cingulate | 30 | 10 | −54 | 10 | 4.16 | 32,410 | ||
Temporal | Left | Superior temporal | 22 | −63 | −44 | 8 | 2.75 | 44 |
Parietal | Left | Postcentral | 5 | −28 | −41 | 65 | 2.94 | 208 |
Postcentral | 5 | −18 | −41 | 65 | 2.90 | 208 | ||
Postcentral | 7 | −12 | −47 | 61 | 2.33 | 208 | ||
Right | Postcentral | 7 | 12 | −47 | 67 | 2.40 | 46 | |
Superior parietal lobule | 7 | 26 | −45 | 61 | 2.58 | 46 | ||
Sub-lobar | Left | Insula | 13 | −32 | 11 | 20 | 2.67 | 60 |
Right | Thalamus | 2 | −18 | 21 | 2.44 | 19 | ||
Posterior cerebellum | Right | Declive | 30 | −69 | −20 | 2.49 | 16 |