Introduction
Methods and positioning
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An international literature review on cultural competency and cultural safety.
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A review of cultural competency legislation, statements and initiatives in NZ, including of the Medical Council of New Zealand (MCNZ).
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Inputs from a national Symposium on Cultural Competence and Māori Health, convened for this purpose by the MCNZ and Te Ohu Rata o Aotearoa – Māori Medical Practitioners Association (Te ORA) [26].
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Consultation with Māori medical practitioners (through Te ORA).
Reviewing cultural competency
Terms | Definition/Concept Examples | Sources |
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Culture | The integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes thoughts, communications, actions, customs, beliefs, values, and institutions of a racial, ethnic, religious, or social group. | [29] |
The accumulated socially acquired result of shared geography, time, ideas and human experience. Culture may or may not involve kinship, but meanings and understandings are collectively held by group members. Culture is dynamic and mobile and changes according to time, individuals and groups. | [30] | |
There is a tendency within healthcare to equate culture with essentialized notions of race and ethnicity, which can lead to practices that separate culture from its social, economic and political context. Narrow conceptualizations of culture and identity may limit the effectiveness of particular approaches, and a focus on specific cultural information may inadvertently promote stereotyping. | [31] | |
Cultural Awareness | a beginning step towards understanding that there is difference. Many people undergo courses designed to sensitise them to formal ritual rather than the emotional, social, economic and political context in which people exist | [30] |
[is] concerned with having knowledge about cultural but, more specifically, ethnic diversity. | [32] | |
an individual’s awareness of her/his own views such as ethnocentric, biased and prejudiced beliefs towards other cultures (p. e120) | [33] | |
essentially the basic acknowledgment of differences between cultures | [34] | |
recognizing that there are differences between cultures | [35] | |
Cultural Sensitivity | alerts students to the legitimacy of difference and begins a process of self-exploration as the powerful bearers of their own life experience and realities and the impact this may have on others. | [30] |
building on the awareness of difference through cultural acceptance, respect and understanding | [36] | |
builds on cultural awareness’ acknowledgment of difference with the addition of the requirement of respecting other cultures | [34] | |
where students start to analyse their own realities and the impact that this may have on others. | [35] | |
Cultural Humility | incorporates a lifelong commitment to self-evaluation and self-critique, to redressing the power imbalances in the patient-physician dynamic, and to developing mutually beneficial and non-paternalistic clinical and advocacy partnerships with communities on behalf of individuals and defined populations. | [37] |
entails valuing life-long learning and critical self-reflection, along with a respectful and inquisitive approach whereby practitioners are expected to seek knowledge from their clients regarding their cultural and structural influences rather than assuming understanding or expertise about a culture outside of their own | [38] | |
defined as having an interpersonal stance that is other-oriented rather than self-focused, characterized by respect and lack of superiority toward an individual’s cultural background and experience. | [39] | |
does not have an endpoint or goal; there is no objective of mastering another culture. Rather it is a continual process of self-reflection and self-critique that overtly addresses power inequities between providers and clients. Attaining cultural humility becomes not a goal but an active process, an ongoing way of being in the world and being in relationships with others and self. | [40] | |
Cultural Security | it legitimises and values cultural differences to ensure no harm is caused and ultimately links understandings and actions | [41] |
seeks to create interactions between health workers and health service users that do ‘not compromise the legitimate cultural rights, views, values and expectations of Aboriginal people’ | [42] | |
Cultural Respect | The ‘Cultural Respect Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health 2004–2009’ identifies the goal of cultural respect as ‘uphold[ing] the rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to maintain, protect and develop their culture and achieve equitable health outcomes | [42] |
The model entails four basic elements highlighting the importance of ‘Knowledge and Awareness’ that informs ‘Skilled Practice and Behaviours’ as well as the development of ‘Strong Relationships’ between (health) institutions, individuals and communities in order to achieve an ‘Equity of Outcomes’ | [43] | |
Cultural Adaptation | all modifications made to standard service methods in order to make services more acceptable, relevant, useful, and/or effective for diverse populations | [44] |
Transcultural Competence | the ability to interact with clientele who come from a range of different cultural backgrounds | [43] |
Transcultural Effectiveness | ability of organisations and systems ‘to acknowledge and respond to unique and diverse perspectives and support non- discriminatory practice’ (p. S51). These authors maintain, furthermore, that transculturally competent practitioners should recognise organisational and systemic obstacles and actively seek ways to modify them | [43] |
Transcultural Nursing | Leininger (1994) defined transcultural nursing as being a subfield of nursing, focusing on comparative study and analysis of different cultures and is the basis on which the theory of culture care diversity and universality was formed. The goal of transcultural nurses being to “identify, test, understand and use a body of transcultural nursing knowledge and practices which is culturally derived in order to provide culturally specific nursing care to people” | [45] |
Culturally Unsafe | “any actions that diminish, demean or disempower the cultural identity and well-being of an individual’ | |
any action that diminishes, demeans, or disempowers the cultural identity and well-being of an individual | [48] | |
Cultural Destructiveness | attitudes, policies, and practices that are destructive to cultures and consequently to the individuals within the culture such as cultural genocide | [29] |
Cultural Incapacity | system or agencies that lack the capacity to help minority clients or communities due to extreme bias, paternalism and a belief in the racial superiority of the dominant group | [29] |
Cultural Blindness | system or agencies that function with the belief that colour or culture make no difference and that all people are the same | [29] |
Cultural Pre-competence | an agency that realises its weaknesses in serving minorities and attempts to improve some aspect of their services to a specific population | [29] |
Cultural Proficiency | agencies that hold culture in high esteem, who seek to add to the knowledge base of culturally competent practice by conducting research and developing new therapeutic approaches based on culture | [29] |
Cultural competence is a set of congruent behaviours, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or among professionals and enable that system, agency, or those professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural situations.
Term | Definition/Concept Examples | Sources |
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Cultural Competency | a set of congruent behaviours, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or among professionals and enable that system, agency, or those professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural situations. | [29] |
acknowledges and incorporates - at all levels - the importance of culture, the assessment of cross-cultural relations, vigilance towards the dynamics that result from cultural differences, the expansion of cultural knowledge, and the adaptation of services to meet culturally-unique needs. | [29] | |
a culturally competent counsellor must acquire ‘awareness, knowledge, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society’, i.e., develop the ‘ability to communicate, interact, negotiate, and intervene on behalf of clients from diverse backgrounds | [43] | |
the ability of individuals to establish effective interpersonal and working relationships that supersede cultural differences by recognizing the importance of social and cultural influences on patients, considering how these factors interact, and devising interventions that take these issues into account | [53] | |
the ability of systems to provide care to patients with diverse values, beliefs and behaviours, including tailoring delivery to meet patients’ social, cultural, and linguistic needs | [54] | |
a more comprehensive, skill-based concept that purposefully involves the system in addition to the patients and has been conceived of as an on-going quality improvement process, relevant across individual, organisational, systemic and professional levels | [50] | |
a complex know-act grounded in critical reflection and action, which the health care professional draws upon to provide culturally safe, congruent, and effective care in partnership with individuals, families, and communities living health experiences, and which takes into account the social and political dimensions of care | [55] | |
the ability to work and communicate effectively and appropriately with people from culturally different backgrounds. While appropriateness implies not violating the valued rules, effectiveness means achieving the valued goals and outcomes in intercultural interactions | [33] | |
the ability to acknowledge, appreciate, and respect the values, preferences, and expressed needs of clients. Cultural competence is also the ability to resolve differences and identify solutions that reduce interference from various cultural factors…This article defines cultural competency as encompassing open-mindedness and a respect for people, families, and societies of various cultural backgrounds. Being able to translate this cultural knowledge and these skills into practice may help enhance the cultural appropriateness of healthcare. | [51] | |
the development of a skill set for more effective provider-patient communication. They stressed the importance of providers’ understanding the relationship between cultural beliefs and behaviour and developing skills to improve quality of care to diverse populations. Several informants expressed concern about the persistence of stereotypic teaching strategies (such as treating Hispanics one way and African Americans another). They mentioned additional components that were underemphasized such as empathy, exploring socioeconomic issues, and addressing bias in the clinical encounter | [56] | |
Social workers describe cultural competence as a continual process of striving to become increasingly self-aware, to value diversity, and to become knowledgeable about cultural strengths | [57] | |
frequently approached in ways which limit its goals to knowledge of characteristics, cultural beliefs, and practices of different non-majority groups, and skills and attitudes of empathy and compassion in interviewing and communicating with non-majority groups. Achieving cultural competence is thus often viewed as a static outcome: One is “competent” in interacting with patients from diverse backgrounds much in the same way as one is competent in performing a physical exam or reading an EKG. | [58] | |
an awareness of cultural diversity and the ability to function effectively, and respectfully, when working with and treating people of different cultural backgrounds. Cultural competence means a doctor has the attitudes, skills and knowledge needed to achieve this. A culturally competent doctor will acknowledge: That New Zealand has a culturally diverse population. That a doctor’s culture and belief systems influence his or her interactions with patients and accepts this may impact on the doctor-patient relationship. That a positive patient outcome is achieved when a doctor and patient have mutual respect and understanding | [23] | |
At the level of the individual practitioner, cultural competence enables increased awareness and understanding of the perspectives and lived realities of Māori clients, which in turn facilitates genuine engagement, trust, and information sharing contributing to enhanced clinical outcomes. | [59] | |
Organisational Cultural Competency | To achieve organizational cultural competence within the health care leadership and workforce, it is important to maximize diversity. This may be accomplished through: Establishing programs for minority health care leadership development and strengthening existing programs. The desired result is a core of professionals who may assume influential positions in academia, government, and private industry. Hiring and promoting minorities in the health care workforce. Involving community representatives in the health care organization’s planning and quality improvement meetings. | [54] |
Organisational cultural competence involves strategies that maximise diversity and incorporate leadership and workforce issues. Specifically, ethnic matching and working with communities. The lack of diversity in health care leadership and the workforce has been identified as a barrier to culturally competent care, and studies have shown that health care quality and racial and ethnic diversity are linked | [60] | |
Systemic Cultural Competency | To achieve systemic cultural competence (e.g., in the structures of the health care system) it is essential to address such initiatives as conducting community assessments, developing mechanisms for community and patient feedback, implementing systems for patient racial/ethnic and language preference data collection, developing quality measures for diverse patient populations, and ensuring culturally and linguistically appropriate health education materials and health promotion and disease prevention interventions. | [54] |
At the system level, the structures of the health care system are attended to and include strategies, such as ethnicity data collection and strategic planning. Ethnicity data collection can assist in the planning of improvements to services by comparing access to services and outcomes of care. | [60] |
the ability of individuals to establish effective interpersonal and working relationships that supersede cultural differences by recognizing the importance of social and cultural influences on patients, considering how these factors interact, and devising interventions that take these issues into account [53] (p.2).
“cultural competency” is frequently approached in ways which limit its goals to knowledge of characteristics, cultural beliefs, and practices of different nonmajority groups, and skills and attitudes of empathy and compassion in interviewing and communicating with nonmajority groups. Achieving cultural competence is thus often viewed as a static outcome: One is “competent” in interacting with patients from diverse backgrounds much in the same way as one is competent in performing a physical exam or reading an EKG. Cultural competency is not an abdominal exam. It is not a static requirement to be checked off some list but is something beyond the somewhat rigid categories of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (p.783).
the ability of systems to provide care to patients with diverse values, beliefs and behaviours, including tailoring delivery to meet patients’ social, cultural, and linguistic needs [54] (p. v).
a complex know-act grounded in critical reflection and action, which the health care professional draws upon to provide culturally safe, congruent, and effective care in partnership with individuals, families, and communities living health experiences, and which takes into account the social and political dimensions of care [55] (p. 12).
Reviewing cultural safety
Term | Definition/Concept Examples | Sources |
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Cultural Safety | is an outcome of nursing and midwifery education that enables safe service to be defined by those that receive the service | [30] |
a focus for the delivery of quality care through changes in thinking about power relationships and patients’ rights | [32] | |
The skill for nurses and midwives does not lie in knowing the customs of ethnospecific cultures. Rather, cultural safety places an obligation on the nurse or midwife to provide care within the framework of recognizing and respecting the difference of any individual. But it is not the nurse or midwife who determines the issue of safety. It is consumers or patients who decide whether they feel safe with the care that has been given | [32] | |
The focus of cultural safety teaching is to educate student nurses and student midwives: - to examine their own realities and the attitudes they bring to each new person they encounter in their practice; − to be open minded and flexible in their attitudes toward people who are different from themselves, to whom they offer or delivers - not to blame the victims of historical and social processes for their current plight; − to produce a workforce of well educated, self-aware registered nurses and midwives who are culturally safe to practice | [32] | |
where there is no inadvertent disempowering of the recipient, indeed where recipients are involved in the decision making and become part of a team effort to maximise the effectiveness of the care. The model pursues more effective practice through being aware of difference, decolonising, considering power relationships, implementing reflective practice, and by allowing the patient to determine what safety means. | [65] | |
a nurse who could objectively evaluate his or her own culture and be familiar about the theory of power structures, is also a culturally safe nurse in all contexts | [35] | |
places an emphasis on the health worker understanding their own culture and identity, and how this manifests in their practice. Thus, cultural safety is concerned with both systemic and individual change with the aim of examining processes of identity formation and enhancing health workers’ awareness of their own identity and its impact on the care they provide to people from indigenous cultural groups. | [42] | |
aims to directly address the effects of colonialism within the dominant health system by focusing on the level of cultural safety felt by an individual seeking health care. The responsibility to recognize and protect a person’s cultural identity (and hence maintain their cultural safety) lies with the health service. Emphasis is placed on assisting the health worker to understand processes of identity and culture, and how power imbalances or relationships can be culturally unsafe (and thus, detrimental to a person’s health and wellbeing) | [42] | |
a strategic and intensely practical plan to change the way healthcare is delivered to Aboriginal people. In particular, the concept is used to express an approach to healthcare that recognizes the contemporary conditions of Aboriginal people which result from their post-contact history. | [63] | |
the movement from cultural competence to cultural safety is not merely another step on a linear continuum, but rather a more dramatic change of approach. This conceptualization of cultural safety represents a more radical, politicized understanding of cultural consideration, effectively rejecting the more limited culturally competent approach for one based not on knowledge but rather on power. | [63] | |
best nurtured in conjunction with other embedded philosophies such as decolonization, symbolic interactionism, understanding social interaction in context, and the social justice imperative to avoid further harm from domination and oppression | [47] ( | |
a constant self-evaluation by a provider to ensure they’re focusing on the individual and are not being influenced by assumptions about that individual’s cultural background or social or economic status…also helps alter the colonial relationship and makes safe space for Indigenous peoples within the system and thereby allowing them to help reshape the system itself | [62] | |
provides for the formal recognition of power relations within health care (and in particular nursing) interactions. By adopting cultural safety it becomes not only possible but inevitable that an exploration of the assumptions underlying practice, brought by both individuals and the profession will occur. This reflective model is effective on the individual, institutional and professional levels, and encourages identification of the assumptions and preconceptions that structure practice | [66] | |
a powerful means of conveying the idea that cultural factors critically influence the relationship between carer and patient. Cultural safety focuses on the potential differences between health providers and patients that have an impact on care and aims to minimize any assault on the patient’s cultural identity. Specifically, the objectives of cultural safety in nursing and midwifery training are to educate students to examine their own realities and attitudes they bring to clinical care, to educate them to be open-minded towards people who are different from themselves, to educate them not to blame the victims of historical and social processes for their current plight, and to produce a workforce of well-educated and self-aware health professionals who are culturally safe to practice as defined by the people they serve. | [46] | |
does not emphasize developing “competence” through knowledge about the cultures with which professionals are working. Instead, cultural safety emphasizes recognizing the social, historical, political and economic circumstances that create power differences and inequalities in health and the clinical encounter | [46] | |
is underpinned by a social justice framework and requires individuals to undertake a process of personal reflection. Cultural safety is therefore a holistic and shared approach, where all individuals feel safe, can undertake learning [36] together with dignity, and demonstrate deep listening | [36] | |
is grounded in critical theoretical perspectives and draws attention to critically oriented knowledge, such as racialization, culturalism, institutional racism and discrimination, and health and health care inequities | [68] | |
extends beyond cultural awareness, sensitivity, and skills-based competencies and is predicated on understanding the power differentials inherent in health care service delivery to redress these inequities through educational processes, focusing on reflexive thinking | [70] | |
is informed philosophically by “emancipatory or neocolonisation theoretical perspectives” and by an emphasis on social justice. Grounded in critical theory, cultural safety invites the nurse | [71] | |
goes beyond describing the practices of other ethnic groups, because such a strategy can lead to a checklist mentality that essentialises group members. Furthermore, a nurse having knowledge of a client’s culture could be disempowering for a client who is disenfranchised from their own culture, and could be seen as the continuation of a colonising process that is both demeaning and disempowering or appropriating. Culturally safe nurses focus on self-understanding and the emphasis is on what attitudes and values nurses bring to their practice. A key tenet is that ‘a nurse or midwife who can understand his or her own culture and the theory of power relations can be culturally safe in any context’ | [60] | |
advocates that both professionals and institutions work to establish a safe place for patients, which is sensitive and responsive to their social, political, linguistic, economic and spiritual concerns. Cultural safety is more than an understanding of a patient’s ethnic background as it requires the ‘health professional to reflect on their own cultural identity and on their relative power as a health provider’ | [72] | |
The curriculum staircase or poutama assumes that students begin their cultural safety education at the bottom of the staircase where they bring with them their personal experiences, knowledge, and biases. Over the next 3 years of their training, the students are assessed on their ability to move to each step. This training focuses on racism awareness, the Treaty of Waitangi, ngā mea Māori (concepts important to Māori), and strategies for institutional change. Hence, the educational process involves movement from awareness to sensitivity, and ultimately to safety. | [48] | |
we envisioned that cultural safety might assist nurses to examine how popularized notions of culture and cultural differences are taken up; to develop greater awareness of how individual and societal assumptions and stereotypes operate in practice; and to better recognize how organizational and structural inequities and wider social discourses – within health care and in our society – inevitably influence nurses’ interpretive perspectives and practices. | [73] | |
Critical Consciousness | If we try to move beyond cultural competency and instead focus on the development of this critical consciousness, what is its object of knowledge? In other words, “What stuff should we learn?” The object of knowledge is not just a series of lists of cultural attributes (which can quickly degrade into dehumanizing stereotypes), nor is it a skill set of questions and demeanours we should assume when encountering a patient who is not like us. We propose that the object of knowledge of these educational efforts is the development of critical consciousness itself, that is, the knowledge and awareness to carry out the social roles and responsibilities of a physician. This way of knowing is a different type of knowledge than that required when studying the biomedical sciences— complementary, but different all the same. | [58] |
Cultural competency is not an abdominal exam. It is not a static requirement to be checked off some list but is something beyond the somewhat rigid categories of knowledge, skills, and attitudes: the continuous critical refinement and fostering of a type of thinking and knowing—a critical consciousness— of self, others, and the world. | [58] |
a focus for the delivery of quality care through changes in thinking about power relationships and patients’ rights [32]. (p.493).
where the movement from cultural competence to cultural safety is not merely another step on a linear continuum, but rather a more dramatic change of approach. This conceptualization of cultural safety represents a more radical, politicized understanding of cultural consideration, effectively rejecting the more limited culturally competent approach for one based not on knowledge but rather on power [63]. (p.10).
Why a narrow understanding of cultural competency may be harmful
Redefining cultural safety to achieve health equity
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Be clearly focused on achieving health equity, with measureable progress towards this endpoint;
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Be centred on clarified concepts of cultural safety and critical consciousness rather than narrow based notions of cultural competency;
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Be focused on the application of cultural safety within a healthcare systemic/organizational context in addition to the individual health provider-patient interface;
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Focus on cultural safety activities that extend beyond acquiring knowledge about ‘other cultures’ and developing appropriate skills and attitudes and move to interventions that acknowledge and address biases and stereotypes;
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Promote the framing of cultural safety as requiring a focus on power relationships and inequities within health care interactions that reflect historical and social dynamics.
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Not be limited to formal training curricula but be aligned across all training/practice environments, systems, structures, and policies.
“Cultural safety requires healthcare professionals and their associated healthcare organisations to examine themselves and the potential impact of their own culture on clinical interactions and healthcare service delivery. This requires individual healthcare professionals and healthcare organisations to acknowledge and address their own biases, attitudes, assumptions, stereotypes, prejudices, structures and characteristics that may affect the quality of care provided. In doing so, cultural safety encompasses a critical consciousness where healthcare professionals and healthcare organisations engage in ongoing self-reflection and self-awareness and hold themselves accountable for providing culturally safe care, as defined by the patient and their communities, and as measured through progress towards acheiveing health equity. Cultural safety requires healthcare professionals and their associated healthcare organisations to influence healthcare to reduce bias and achieve equity within the workforce and working environment”.
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Mandate evidence of engagement and transformation in cultural safety activities as a part of vocational training and professional development;
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Include evidence of cultural safety (of organisations and practitioners) as a requirement for accreditation and ongoing certification;
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Ensure that cultural safety is assessed by the systematic monitoring and assessment of inequities (in health workforce and health outcomes);
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Require cultural safety training and performance monitoring for staff, supervisors and assessors;
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Acknowledge that cultural safety is an independent requirement that relates to, but is not restricted to, expectations for competency in ethnic or Indigenous health.